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Learning

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The process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring info or behavior.

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Associative Learning

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Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditions).

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Stimulus

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Any event or situation that evokes a response.

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Respondent Behavior

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Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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Operant Behavior

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Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

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Cognitive Learning

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The acquisition of mental info, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

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Classical Conditioning

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A type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

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Neutral Stimulus (NS)

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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning.

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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In classical conditioning,an unlearned,naturally occurring response(such as salivation)tone unconditioned stimulus (US)(such as food in the mouth).

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Unconditioned stimulus (US)

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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally naturally and automatically triggers a response (UR)

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Conditioned response (CR)

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In classical conditioning, a learned response to previously neutral(but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

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In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

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Acquisition

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In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when we link a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.)

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Extinction

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In classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimuli does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the weakening of a response when it is no longer reinforced.)

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Spontaneous Recovery

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The reappearance, after a pause. of an extinguished conditioned response.

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Generalization

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in classical conditioning, the tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus. (In operant, conditioning, generalization occurs when our responses to similar stimuli are also reinforced.)

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Discrimination

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In classical conditioning the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimuli and other irrelevant stimuli. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from those that are not.)

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Operant Conditioning

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A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more probable if followed by a reinforcer or is diminished if followed by a punisher.

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Law of Effect

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

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Operant Chamber

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In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

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Reinforcement

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In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

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Shaping

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An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior.

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Positive Reinforcement

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Increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. a positive reinforcer is anything that when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

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Negative Reinforcement

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Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

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Primary Reinforcer

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An event that is innately reinforcing, often by satisfying a biological need.

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Conditioned Reinforcer

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(also known as secondary reinforcer) an event that gains its reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer.

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Reinforcement Schedule

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(also known as secondary reinforcer) an event that gains its reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer.

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Continuous Reinforcement

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Reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs.

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Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

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Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

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Fixed ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement, schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

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Variable ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

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Fixed Interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

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Variable interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

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Punishment

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An event that decreases the behavior it follows.

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Biological Constraints

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Evolved biological tendencies that predispose animals' behavior and learning. Thus certain behaviors are more easily learned than others.

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Behaviorism

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The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

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Cognitive Map

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A mental image of the layout of one's environment.

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Latent learning

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Learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

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Intrinsic motivation

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A desire to perform a behavior well for its own sake.

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Extrinsic Motivation

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A desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid punishment.

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Observational Learning

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Learning by observing others.

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Modeling

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The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

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Mirror Neuron

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A neuron that fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; a neural basis for imitation and observational learning.

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Prosocial behavior

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Positive, constructive helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

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Memory

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The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of info.

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Encoding

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The process of getting info into the memory system.

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Storage

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The process of retaining encoded info over time.

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Retrieval

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The process of getting info out of memory storage.

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Sensory Memory

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The immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in the memory system.

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Short term Memory

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Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while calling) before the info is stored or forgotten.

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Long term Memory

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The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

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Working memory

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A newer understanding of short term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial info, and of info retrieved from long term memory.

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Implicit memory

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Retention of learned skills, or classically conditioned associations, without conscious awareness. (also called nondeclarative memory.)

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Automatic processing

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Unconscious encoding of everyday info, such as space time, and frequency, and of well learned info, such as word meanings.

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Explicit memory

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Retention of facts and personal events you can consciously retrieve (Also called declarative memory.)

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Effortful Processing

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Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

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Parallel Processing

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The processing of many aspects of a problem at the same tine; the brain's natural mode of info processing for many functions.

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Chunking

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Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

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Mnemonics

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Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

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Spacing Effect

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The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice.

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Testing effect

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Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, info. Also sometimes referred to as the retrieval practice effect or test enhanced learning.

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Semantic Memory

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Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of out two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory).

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Episodic memory

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Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory).

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Hippocampus

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A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

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Memory Consolidation

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The neural storage of a long term memory.

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Flashbulb Memory

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A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

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Long term Potentiation (LTP)

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An increase in a cell's firing potential. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

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Recall

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Memory demonstrated by retrieving info learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test.

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Recognition

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Memory demonstrated by identifying items previously learned, as ona multiple choice test.

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Relearning

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Memory demonstrated by time saved when learning material a second time.

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Retrieval cue

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Any stimulus (event, feeling, place, and so on) linked to a specific memory.

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Priming

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The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

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Mood Congruent memory

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The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with your current good or bad mood.

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Serial Position Effect

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Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

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Amnesia

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Literally "without memory" a loss of memory, often due to brain trauma, injury, or disease.

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memory Trace

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Lasting physical change in a the brain as a memory forms.

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Proactive Interference

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The forward acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new info.

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Retroactive Interference

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The backward acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old info.

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Repression

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In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness the thoughts, feelings and memories that arouse anxiety.

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Reconsolidation

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A process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.

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Misinformation Effect

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When a memory has been corrupted by misleading info.

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Source amnesia

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Faulty memory for how, when, or where info was learned or imagined.

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Deja vu

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That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

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