Psych Chapter 8 – Memory Key Terms / Issues – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Unlock answers
question
Memory
answer
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
question
Working Memory
answer
- a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
question
Encoding
answer
- the processing of information into the memory system--for example, by extracting meaning
question
Storage
answer
- the retention of encoded information over time
question
Retrieval
answer
the process of getting information out of memory storage
question
Sensory Memory
answer
- the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
question
Long Term Memory
answer
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
question
Short Term Memory
answer
Activated memory that holds a few times briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
question
Automatic Processing
answer
- unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
question
Effortful Processing
answer
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
question
Rehearsal
answer
the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
question
Spacing Effect
answer
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
question
Serial Position Effect
answer
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
question
Semantic Encoding
answer
the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
question
Acoustic Encoding
answer
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
question
Visual Encoding
answer
the encoding of picture images
question
Imagery
answer
mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
question
Mnemonics
answer
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
question
Chunking
answer
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
question
Iconic Memory
answer
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
question
Echoic Memory
answer
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
question
Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
answer
an increase in a synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
question
Amnesia
answer
Loss of memory
question
Implicit Memory
answer
retention independent of conscious recollection. Also called procedural memory
question
Explicit Memory
answer
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
question
Hippocampus
answer
a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
question
Recall
answer
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
question
Recognition
answer
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
question
Relearning
answer
a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
question
Priming
answer
the implicit activation of particular associations in memory.
question
Deja vu
answer
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
question
Mood Congruent Memory
answer
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.
question
Source Amnesia
answer
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
question
Proactive Interference
answer
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
question
Retroactive Interference
answer
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
question
Repression
answer
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
question
Misinformation Effect
answer
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
question
Flashbulb Memory
answer
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
question
Aphasia
answer
loss of ability to understand or express speech, caused by brain damage.
question
Broca's Area
answer
a region of the brain concerned with the production of speech, located in the cortex of the dominant frontal lobe.
question
Broca's Aphasia
answer
words spoken that are characterized by hesitant and fragmented speech with little grammatical structure.
question
Wernicke's Area
answer
a region of the brain concerned with the comprehension of language, located in the cortex of the dominant temporal lobe.
question
Wernicke's Aphasia
answer
words spoken that are characterized by superficially fluent, grammatical speech but an inability to use or understand more than the most basic nouns and verbs.
question
Alzheimer's Disease
answer
a progressive mental deterioration that can occur in middle or old age, due to generalized degeneration of the brain. It is the most common cause of premature senility.
question
Senility
answer
having or showing the weaknesses or diseases of old age, especially a loss of mental functioning
question
Serial Position Effect
answer
finding that immediate recall of items listed in a fixed order is better for items at the beginning and end rather than those in the middle
question
Elaboration
answer
the process of creating associations between a new memory and existing memories
question
holding an exact image of the sensory experience.
answer
Which of the following best describes the memory capacity of the sensory register?
question
We form connections between concepts based on experience.
answer
Which of the following is the best explanation of the spreading activation model of long-term memory?
question
schema
answer
An associative network of beliefs, knowledge, and expectations is known as a ________
question
chunking
answer
To stretch the storage capacity of short-term memory, individuals are capable of grouping like items together. For instance, the directions north, south, east, and west can be group as "directions," and "directions" could be one item in memory. This process of stretching the limits of short-term memory in this fashion is called
question
levels of processing model
answer
The depth at which we process information determines how well it is encoded, stored, and retrieved. This statement is the central idea of the _____
question
There is not a strong enough retrieval cue to recover the memory.
answer
If you believe that long-term memories are permanently stored, then which of the following is the most logical explanation for forgetting long-term memories?
question
proactive interference
answer
The interference built up by prior learning is known as
question
retrograde amnesia
answer
While delivering his papers, Ernie had a bicycle accident and received a hard blow to the head. As a result, he could not remember the events preceding the accident. Ernie is experiencing
question
new
answer
Anterograde amnesia is the inability to store and retrieve ______ information in long-term memory.
question
both STM and LTM
answer
Experimental evidence for the interference theory of forgetting has been found in studies of _________
question
recall
answer
You wish to log on to your computer network and the system requests your password. You no longer have the piece of paper you wrote the password on, so you must rely on
question
the spreading activation model
answer
Which theory of the organization of long-term memory claims that concepts are linked by experience?
question
1/4 second
answer
Visual information remains in the sensory register for about ______
question
false memories
answer
When people forget, they are not only distorting information but may also be remembering events that never occurred. This is consistent with the idea of
question
indexed
answer
One way in which long-term memory is different from short-term memory is that the information in long-term memory is
question
hippocampus; cortical
answer
Information stored in LTM is integrated in the _______ before it is transferred to _______ areas for permanent storage.
question
declarative
answer
Researchers who study memory sometimes group semantic and episodic memories together under the category ______ memories.
question
They are remembered better because they have more opportunity for rehearsal.
answer
What best explains the degree of recall for items at the beginning of a list?
question
procedural memory
answer
When asked what your parent's phone number is, you cannot repeat it, but a moment later you can dial it from memory without looking it up. In this case, which memory system has served you well?
question
proactive
answer
Mary's study of psychology interfered with her capacity to recall sociology. Since psychology was studied first, the interference is__________
question
we form concepts based on our experiences
answer
Which of the following is the best explanation of the spreading activation model of long-term memory?
question
memories that are closely associated with memory cues
answer
Which of the following is the best explanation of the spreading activation model of long-term memory?
question
synaptic facilitation
answer
Donald Hebb described a process that he believed was the physiological process responsible for learning and memory. He termed this process _______
question
relearning
answer
You cannot remember much of what you learned in high school chemistry but you learn the same chemistry material in college much faster than you did in high school. Which method of memory evaluation does this illustrate?
question
recall
answer
You wish to log on to your computer network and the system requests your password. You no longer have the piece of paper you wrote the password on, so you must rely on ______
question
episodic
answer
Of all the types of long-term memories, which type appears to be the most fragile?
question
proactive interference
answer
Recently Tom's five-speed sports car was in the shop for needed repairs and Tom borrowed a large car with an automatic transmission. Tom kept trying to shift gears as if he were driving a stick shift. This example illustrates _________
question
chunks
answer
Of the following, the best way to expand the amount of material one can store in short-term memory is to organize material into _______
question
episodic memory
answer
Memory for experiences that can be defined in terms of time and place is called
question
short term memory
answer
You were introduced to your date's best friend just 10 minutes ago. Now you need to get her attention but you cannot remember her name. You forgot because of the limits of ________
question
Hippocampus
answer
the part of the brain that processes EXPLICIT memories
question
Explicit Memory
answer
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.) Responsible for facts, knowledge, experiences
question
Cerebellum
answer
Part of the brain that processes IMPLICIT memories
question
Implicit Memory
answer
Retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.) Responsible for motor skills, classical conditioning (like playing the piano)
question
Flashbulb Memory
answer
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (helped by the amygdala)
question
LTP (long term potentation)
answer
Increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
question
CREB
answer
A protein that switches genes off or on; helps us retain long-term memories by increasing the production of proteins that enable LTP.
question
Glutamate
answer
A neurotransmitter that enhances synaptic communication (LTP).
question
Iconic Memory
answer
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
question
Ethoic Memory
answer
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
question
Magical Number 7
answer
George Miller noted recall capacity to be seven bits of info, plus or minus 2. This is the limitation of information that can be stored in short-term memory.
question
Long term memory capacity
answer
Limitless
question
recall
answer
A measure of memory in which the person must retrive information learned earlier (Fill-in-the-blank
question
Recognition
answer
A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned (Multiple-choice)
question
Relearning
answer
You relearn something quicker than when you first learned it, even if you forgot it all
question
Retrieval Cues
answer
Anchor points you use to access target information. Mnemonic devies are an example
question
Priming
answer
The activation of particular associations in memory (after seeing the word "rabbit", we are more likely to spell the spoken word hair/hare as "hare").
question
Context Effects
answer
Putting yourself back in the context where you originally experienced something helps retrieve the memory (like re-tracing your steps to remember where you put the car keys).
question
Deja Vu
answer
The eerie sense that "I've experienced this before". Cues from your current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. Goes with context effects
question
State Dependent Memory
answer
What we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when back in that same state (if you hide money while drunk, you may remember where you hid it once you're drunk again).
question
Mood Congruent Memory
answer
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. (currently depressed people describe memories in a bad way, formerly depressed people see memories in a more positive light).
question
3 Sins of Forgetting
answer
Absent-mindedness (inattention to details leads to encoding failure), transcience (storage decay over time), blocking (inaccessibility of stored information-- tip-of-the-tongue)
question
3 Sins of Distortion
answer
Misattribution (confusing the source of information), suggestibility (lingering effects of misinformation, as with leading questions), bias (belief-colored recollections)
question
Memory and age
answer
The brain areas that encode new information are less responsive in older adults
question
Ebbinghaus
answer
After learning lists of nonsense syllables, ___________studied how much he retained. The forgetting curve declines quickly, then levels out (usually after 3 years).
question
Proactive Interference
answer
Something you learned earlier disrupts your recall of something you experience later
question
Retroactive Interference
answer
New information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier.
question
Repression
answer
The classical defense mechanism that protects you from impulses or ideas that would cause anxiety by preventing them from becoming conscious
question
Misinformation Effect
answer
Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
question
Source Amnesia
answer
Also called source misattribution; attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (often experienced by songwriters and authors)
question
Memory Construction
answer
Our mind Photoshops our memories. Also related to hindsight bias
question
Associative Learning
answer
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
question
Classical Conditioning
answer
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
question
Learning
answer
A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
question
Behaviorism
answer
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
question
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
answer
Unconditionally (automatically and naturally) triggers a response. In Pavlov's experiment, the food.
question
Unconditioned Response (UR)
answer
The unlearned, natural response to the unconditioned stimulus (US). In Pavlov's experiment, the salivation in response to the food.
question
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
answer
The originally neutral stimulus that triggers the CR after conditioning. In Pavlov's experiment, the tone.
question
Conditioned Response (CR)
answer
The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus (CS). In Pavlov's experiment, the salivation in response to the tone.
question
Acquisition
answer
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
question
Higher order conditioning
answer
A new neutral stimulus can become a new conditioned stimulus. It's often weaker than first-stage conditioning.
question
Timing
answer
Presenting the US BEFORE the CS rather than after doesn't work-- animals want to be able to predict events. Half a second should elapse between each stimulus.
question
Extinction
answer
The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs when the US stops following the CS. The tone no longer signals the food.
question
Spontaneous Recovery
answer
The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.
question
Generalization
answer
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses (fudge looks disgusting when shaped like dog poop).
question
Discrimination
answer
The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus (confronted by a pit bull, your heart may race, but confronted with a golden retriever, it probably won't).
question
Biological Dispositions
answer
Different species are biologically prepared to learn different associations.
question
Applications of Classical Conditioning
answer
Former drug users feel a craving when in the drug-using environment, so we know to advise them to steer clear of their drug-using context. When a particular taste accompanies a drug that influences immune responses, the taste by itself may come to produce an immune response. Little Albert learned to fear animals.
question
Respondent Behavior
answer
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response
question
Operant Behavior
answer
Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
question
Operant Conditioning
answer
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
question
Law of Effect
answer
Thorndike's idea that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
question
Skinner Box
answer
Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, a box that contains a responding mechanism and a device capable of delivering a consequence to an animal in the box whenever it makes the desired response
question
Shaping
answer
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward the desired behavior using successive approximations.
question
Reinforcer
answer
Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
question
Positive Reinforcement
answer
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food or concert tickets. When ADDED after a response, strengthens the response.
question
Negative Reinforcement
answer
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as a headache (taking aspirin is the behavior, the negative reinforcement is that it takes away the headache. Putting on a seatbelt is the behavior, turning off the annoying beeping is the negative reinforcement). When REMOVED after a response, strengthens the response.
question
Primary Reinforcer
answer
Unlearned, innately satisfying (getting food when hungry).
question
Conditioned reinforcer
answer
Also known as secondary reinforcer; gains its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer (money is secondary, food is primary because money is associated with food. Good gades are another example).
question
Continuous Reinforcement
answer
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
question
Partial Reinforcement
answer
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction
question
Fixed Ratio Schedule
answer
Every so many; reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (buy 10 coffees, get one free)
question
Variable Ration Schedule
answer
After an unpredictable number; reinforcement after a random number of behaviors (slot machines, fishing)
question
Fixed Interval Schedule
answer
Every so often; reinforcement after a fixed amount of time (pigeons pecking the key more frequently as anticipated reward time draws near, or checking the mail more frequently when expected delivery time draws near)
question
Variable Interval Schedule
answer
Unpredictably often; reinforcement after a random amount of time (checking for email)
question
Punishment
answer
The opposite of reinforcement; decreases the behavior that it follows.
question
Positive Punishment
answer
Administer an aversive stimulus (parking ticket)
question
Negative Punishment
answer
Withdraw a desirable stimulus (revoked driver's license)
question
Cognitive Map
answer
A mental representation of the layout of one's environment (like a rat's mental representation of a maze)
question
Latent Learning
answer
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it (evidence of cognitive processes)
question
Intrinsic Motivation
answer
desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake (undermined by excessive rewards)
question
Extrinsic Motivation
answer
desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment (reading the psych book not to learn it but to avoid failing a test)
question
Observational Learning
answer
Learning by observing others
question
Modeling
answer
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
question
Mirror Neurons
answer
Monkey see, monkey do. Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy. People with autism have "broken mirrors"-- reduced mirror neuron activity.
question
Bobo Doll Experiement
answer
Albert Bandura's famous experiment illustrating modeling (the kids imitated the adults' treatment of the Bobo doll).
question
Prosocial Models
answer
Positive, constructive, helpful (opposite of antisocial)
question
Antisocial Effects of Observational Learning
answer
Abusive parents --> aggressive children. Violent video games --> violent imitation. Prolonged exposure to violence desensitizes viewers as well.
question
Processing of Information
answer
Processing of information
question
Storage
answer
Retention of encoded information over time
question
Retrieval
answer
Process of getting information out of storage
question
Sensory Memory
answer
Immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
question
Short term memory
answer
Holds only a few items briefly, such as a phone number before dialing
question
Long term memory
answer
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
question
Working Memory
answer
A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
question
Automatic Processing
answer
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning
question
Three State Processing of Memory
answer
External events --> Sensory memory --> Encoding (attention to important/novel information) --> Working/short-term memory --> Encoding/Retrieving --> Long-term memory
question
Effortful Memory
answer
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
question
Rehearsal
answer
Conscious repetition of information
question
Spacing Effect
answer
Tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study of practice
question
Serial Position Effect
answer
Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
question
Primacy Effect
answer
Recall is best for the first items learned
question
Recall Effect
answer
Recall is best for last items because they are still in working memory
question
Visual Encoding
answer
Encoding of picture images
question
Acoustic Encoding
answer
Encoding of sound, especially of words
question
Semantic Encoding
answer
Encoding of meaning
question
Imagery
answer
We more easily remember things we can picture-- for example, it's easier to remember concrete words than abstract ones.
question
Chunking
answer
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
question
Mnemonic Devices
answer
Memory aids using imagery and organizational devices (ROY G BIV for the colors of the rainbow)
question
Hierarchies
answer
Broad concepts divided into narrower concepts and facts
Get an explanation on any task
Get unstuck with the help of our AI assistant in seconds
New