question

-103 preschool children -measure how children were functioning -identified 3 parenting styles -described typical behavior patterns of children raised according to each parenting style -established strong associations between each parenting style and a particular set of child behaviors

answer

Diana Baumrind study

question

-value control and unquestioning obedience - try to make children conform rigidly to a set standard of conduct and punishing them for violating it -children tend to be more discontented , withdrawn, and distrustful

answer

authoritarian parenting

question

- value self expression and self regulation -make few demands and allow children to monitor their own activities -rarely punish -warm and non controlling -children tend to be immature, the least self controlled, and the least exploratory

answer

permissive parent

question

-value a childs individuality but also stress social constraints -have confidence in their ability to guide children but they also respect the childs independent decisions, interests, opinions, and personality -loving and accepting but demand good behavior -impose punishment when necessary -children feel secure in knowing both that they are loved and what is expected of them -kids tend to be the self-reliant, self controlled ,self assertive, exploratory, and content

answer

authoriative parent

question

Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin added a fourth parenting style....____

answer

neglectful/uninvolved -parents who , because of stress or depression, focus on their own needs rather than the child's

question

why does authoritative parenting tend to enhance children's social competance?

answer

-authoritative parents set sensible expectations and realistic standards -when a problem arises, an authoritative parent leads them to how to deal with the situation in a socially acceptable manner

question

longitudinal study of 585 ethnically and socioeconomically diverse families in tennessee and indiana with children pre-6th grade

answer

four aspects of early supportive parenting predicted possible behavioral, social, and academic outcomes -warmth -use of inductive discipline, -interest and involvement in children contact with peers -proactive teaching and social skills -suggested there is one right way to parent a child

question

traditional chinese culture emphazises _____

answer

-respect for elders -stresses adults responsibility to maintain the social order by teaching children socially proper behavior

question

American parents value ___

answer

-individuality -choice -freedom

question

motivation to help another person with no expectation of reward

answer

altruism

question

voluntary activity intended to benefit another -usually before their 2nd birthday, children often help others -girls tend to be more prosocial than boys but the differences are small -there is a prosocial personality/disposition

answer

prosocial behavior

question

study of twin pairs whose prosocial behavior was rated by parents at ages 3,4, and 7

answer

-parents who showed affection and followed positive disciplinary strategies tended to encourage their children natural tendency to prosocial behavior -parents of prosocial children are normally prosocial themselves -motives for prosocial behavior may change -preschoolers tend to have egocentric motives -cultures vary in dire in which they foster prosocial behavior

question

aggression used as an instrument to reach a goal (most common type)

answer

instrumental aggression

question

between ages ____ & ____, children commonly struggle over toys and control of space and therefore instrumental aggression surfaces mostly during social play

answer

2.5 and 5

question

children who fight the most tend to be the most ______

answer

sociable and competent

question

as children develop more self control dn become better able to express themselves verbally, they typically shift from showing aggression with blows to showing it with _____

answer

words

question

_____ is an acceptation to the generalization that boys and girls are more similar than different

answer

aggression

question

T OR F: in all cultures , boys are more physically and verbally aggressive than girls

answer

TRUE

question

though girls are more aggressive than they seem, boys engage in more ____ physical or verbal aggression

answer

overt/direct

question

girls are more likely to engage in ______ aggression

answer

relational /social -damaging or interfering with relationships , reputation, or psychological well being

question

T OR F: temperament plays the only role in aggression

answer

FALSE -also has genetic and environment sources

question

aggression is __%-____% heritable

answer

50-60%

question

aggression is ____% genetic

answer

20%

question

insecure attachment and lack of maternal warmth and affection in infancy predict _____

answer

aggression

question

why does witnessing violence lead to aggression?

answer

they learn from their parents and any adults so when they witness an adult doing an violent act , they think it is okay for them to do it

question

T OR F : passing fears are common in early childhood

answer

true

question

many ___-___ year olds are afraid of animals

answer

2-4

question

by age ___, children are more likely to be afraid of the dark

answer

6

question

most fears pass when they grow older and lose their sense of______

answer

powerlessness

question

young children fears stem largely from their ______

answer

fantasy life and their tendency to confused appearance with reality

question

parents can allay a child's fear by instilling ______

answer

a sense of trust and normal caution without being too protective

question

therapeutic technique in which a child is exposed in gradually increasing amount to a feared object or situation

answer

systematic desensitization

question

children growing sense of their ability to master challenges and achieve goals

answer

self efficacy

question

the earliest disputes among siblings are over ___

answer

property rights

question

as the younger sibling reaches age 5, the siblings become less _____ and more ____

answer

less physical and more verbal

question

in the US , ___% of children under 18 have no siblings in the home

answer

21%

question

_______ claims that only children were at risk for problems of sexual identity

answer

Freud

question

_____ claimed that being an only child is damaging

answer

Stanley Hall

question

T OR F, only children perform slightly better than children with siblings and are more motivated to achieve

answer

TRUE

question

research in china looking at how people were limited to only one child stated that...

answer

-no significant differences

question

children begin to have friends at age ___

answer

3

question

T OR F: preschoolers usually like to play with kids their own age and sex

answer

TRUE

question

___ out of ____ preschoolers have mutual friendships

answer

3 out of 4

question

4-7 year olds rated the most important features of friendships as ______

answer

-doing things together, liking and caring for each other, sharing and helping one another, and living nearby or going to the same school

question

T OR F; preschool children prefer prosocial playmates

answer

TRUE

question

T OR FALSE; preschoolers act the same with people who are their friends and those who are not

answer

FALSE

question

what are the three categories of discipline?

answer

power assertion, induction, and temporary withdrawal of love

question

intended to stop or discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parent control -includes demands , threats, withdraw of priveliges , spanking

answer

power assertion

question

designed to encourage desirable behavior by reasoning with a child -setting limits -demonstrating good behavior

answer

inductive techniques

question

includes ignoring , oscillating, or showing dislike for the child

answer

withdrawal of love

question

Kindergarteners whose mothers report using reasoning are more likely to see the ____

answer

moral wrongness of behavior that hurts other people

question

T OR F: the choice and effectiveness of a disciplinary strategy may depend on the parents personality, the childs personality and age, and the quality of their relationship

answer

TRUE

question

the effectiveness of parental discipline may hinge on .....

answer

how well the child understand and accepts the parents message cognitively and emotionally

question

the way children describe themselves

answer

self definition

question

age 7

answer

at what age will children begin to describe themselves in generalized traits, recognize he can have conflicting emotions, and be self-critical?

question

-first stage of the shift in thinking from age 5-7 -statements about oneself are one-dimensional -thinking jumps from particular to particular w/o logical connections -cannot decenter - cannot acknowledge real self vs ideal self

answer

Single Representations

question

person one actually is

answer

real self

question

person one would like to be

answer

ideal self

question

-second stage of the shift in thinking from age 5-7 -begin to make logical connections between one aspect of himself and another -image of himself is still expressed in completely positive, all or nothing terms -can't see how one might be good at some things and bad at others

answer

representational mapping

question

-third stage of the shift in thinking from age 5-7 -takes place middle childhood -begin to integrate specific features of the self into a general. multidimensional concept -self descriptions become more balanced and realistic

answer

representational systems

question

through everyday conversations

answer

how do parents transmit cultural ideas and beliefs about how to define yourself?

question

compliance with authority and appropriate conduct, humility, and a sense of belonging to the community

answer

interdependent aspects of self

question

interdependent aspects of self

answer

what kind of aspect do Chinese parents usually advocate for?

question

individuality, self-expression, and self-esteem

answer

independent aspects of the self

question

independent aspects of the self

answer

What kind of aspect do European Parents usually advocate for?

question

that children absorb different cultural sales of self-definition as early as age 3 or 4 and these differences increase w/ age

answer

What did the comparative study of Euro-Am and Chinese kids show?

question

-in terms of personal attributes and beliefs -in terms of personality traits and tendencies -tend to put themselves in an unqualifiedly positive light

answer

How do Euro-Am children usually describe themselves?

question

-they talk more about social categories and relationships -describe specific, overt behaviors -tend to describe themselves more neutrally

answer

How do Chinese children usually describe themselves?

question

the evaluative part of the self-concept, the judgement that children make about their overall self-worth

answer

self esteem

question

children's growing cognitive ability to describe and define themselves

answer

what is self esteem based on?

question

around age 8 **younger children often show by their behavior that they have one

answer

when do children usually articulate a concept of self worth?

question

predict their self-perceptiosns and socioemotional functioning at age 8

answer

studies show that children's positive or negative self perceptions at age 5 tended to...

question

-not necessarily based on reality -children of this age tend to accept judgements of adults -tends to be all or none

answer

self esteem before the 5-7 shift?

question

middle childhood

answer

when does self esteem become more realistic?

question

a child is motivated to achieve

answer

what happens when self esteem is high?

question

-children may view failure or criticism as an indictment of their worth and may feel helpless to do better -tend to be demoralized when they fail

answer

what happens when self esteem is contingent on success?

question

1/3-1/2

answer

about ______ of preschoolers-first graders show signs of the "helpless" pattern

question

true

answer

t/f: children with poor self esteem often attribute poor performance or social rejection to their personality deficiencies

question

tend to attribute failure or disappointment to factors outside themselves or to the need to try harder

answer

what do children with non-contingent self esteem tend to do when they fail?

question

true

answer

t/f children with high self esteem tend to have parents and teachers who give specific, focused feedback rather than criticize the child as a person

question

the ability to understand and regulate one's feelings

answer

what is one key to the advances of early childhood?

question

they are better able to control the way they show them and to be sensitive to how others feel

answer

what can children who understand their emotions do better?

question

helps them guide their behavior and contributes to their ability to get along with others

answer

how does emotional regulation help children?

question

becomes more complicated with age

answer

emotional understanding...

question

during middle childhood

answer

when do most children acquire a more sophisticated understanding of conflicting emotions?

question

by the end of the third year

answer

When do emotions directed towards the self (guilt, shame, pride) start to develop?

question

7-8

answer

not until age ____ did children say that they would feel ashamed or proud of themselves even if no one saw them

question

Erik son's third stage of psychosocial development

answer

Initiative vs Guilt

question

1. The conflict arises from the growing sense of purpose 2. This spurs a child to plan and carry out activities 3. From this, we observe the growing pangs of conscience the child may have about such plans 4.. Helps teach young children that some of the things they want to do don't always meet social approval 5. Children who learn how to regulate these opposing drives develop the virtue of purpose

answer

what happens in the initiative vs guilt stage?

question

purpose

answer

What is the virtue that develops from initiative vs guilt?

question

the courage to envision and pursue goals without being unduly inhibited by guilts or fear of punishment

answer

What is Purpose?

question

-the child might grow into an adult who is constantly striving for success or showing off -is inhibited and unspontaneous -self righteous and intolerant -suffers from impotence or psychosomatic illness

answer

What happens if the initiative vs guilt stage and purpose isn't achieved?

question

psychological or behavioral differences between males and females

answer

gender differences

question

after age 3

answer

when do some gender differences become more pronounced?

question

on average, boys and girls remain more alike than different

answer

gender similarities hypothesis

question

78

answer

fully ______% of gender differences are small and some change with age

question

self esteem

answer

what is one gender difference that can change with age?

question

-superior motor performance (especially after puberty) - more physically aggressive after age 2 - more active and take more intense pleasure in physical activity

answer

Boys differences from girls

question

-from infancy on girls are better able to pay attention to inhibit inappropriate behavior -tend to use more responsive language like praise, agreement, acknowledgement, and elaboration

answer

girls differences from boys

question

true

answer

t/f cognitive gender differences are few and small

question

true

answer

t/f boys and girls do equally as well on tasks involving basic math

question

tend to do better on verbal fluency tests, math computation, and memory for locations of objects

answer

girls and test taking

question

tend to excel in verbal analogies, math word probs, and memory for spatial configurations

answer

boys and test taking

question

np, the gender differences are valid for large groups but not always individuals

answer

can we predict whether an individual boy or girl will be faster, stronger, smarter etc.?

question

behaviors, interests, attitudes, skills and personality traits that a culture considers appropriate for males and females

answer

what are gender roles?

question

yes

answer

Do all societies have gender roles?

question

women have been expected to spend most of time caring for household and children, to be compliant and nurturant

answer

what's a typical gender role women are expected to fulfill in most cultures?

question

to be protecters and providers, to be active and competitive

answer

what is a typical gender role men are expected to fulfill?

question

the acquisition of a gender role, this takes place in early childhood, and children vary GREATLY in the degree to which they become gender-typed

answer

What is Gender typing?

question

they are over-generalizations about male or female behavior

answer

What are Gender Stereotypes?

question

sometimes in children as young as 2-3 but they reach a peak at 5 years old

answer

When do gender stereotypes usually appear?

question

no specific answer, there are 5 theoretical perspectives on gender development

answer

Where do children learn gender roles and gender stereotypes?

question

-scientists have identified more than 50 genes that may explain differences in anatomy and function between the brains of female and male mice -if similar genetic differences exist in humans than sexual identity may be hardwired into the brain even before sexual organs form and hormonal activity begins

answer

Biological Approach

question

boys: 10% larger b/c more of the gray matter in the cerebral cortex girls: have greater neuronal density

answer

by age 5, what does the brain look like?

question

band of tissue joining the left and right hemispheres, size differences in it are correlated with verbal fluency

answer

corpus callosum

question

they have a larger corpus callous so they have better coordination between the two hemispheres...this may help explain girls' superior verbal abilities

answer

what's up with the girls corpus callosum?

question

-related to aggressiveness in adult animals - relationship to aggressiveness in humans is less clear -hormonal influences are hard to disentangle from genetic or later environmental influences -testosterone levels do NOT appear to be related to aggression in childhood

answer

testosterone

question

girls with this have high prenatal levels of male sex hormones and although they are raised as girls, they tend to develop into tomboys

answer

congenital adrenal hyperplasia

question

female hormones, they tend to have less of an effect on boys' gender typed behavior

answer

Estrogens

question

this case seems to suggest that gender identity may ne rooted in chromosomal structure or prenatal development and CANNOT be changed easily

answer

what does the case of the 7 month old baby say about gender identity?

question

it may have some flexibility after all

answer

What does the case of the 2 month old baby say about assignment of gender early in infancy?

question

-sex chromosome genes -brain structure -family dynamics -social circumstances -prenatal androgen (male sex hormones) exposure

answer

influences of psychosexual behavior

question

-sees gendered behavior as biologically based w/ a purpose -children's gender roles underlie the evolved mating and strategies of males and females

answer

Evolutionary Developmental Approach

question

-Darwin's theory -children develop gender roles in preparation for adult mating and reproductive behaviors -men tend to seek as many partners as possible-- b/c it enables them to compete for mates and for control of resources and social statue

answer

Theory of sexual selection

question

b/c it enables them to compete for mates and for control of resources and social status

answer

why do men tend to seek as many partners as possible?

question

b/c they invest more time and energy into pregnancy and can bear only a limited number of children..so each child's survival is really important to her

answer

why do women not do this?

question

during childhood as preparation for their adult roles

answer

according to evolutionary theory, when do male aggressiveness and female nurturant develop?

question

in all cultures, women tend to be children's primary caregivers

answer

what is some evidence in support of the evolutionary theory?

question

in the US and other Western societies today, men have greater involvement in child raising than in the past

answer

what is some evidence against the evolutionary theory?

question

they suggest that society and culture are as important as biology in determining gender roles

answer

what do critics of the evolutionary theory suggest?

question

a dynamic process

answer

what do some evolutionary theorists see the evolution of gender roles as?

question

-sigmund freud -gender identity occurs when child identifies with same-sex parent

answer

psychoanalytic approach

question

the adoption of characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex

answer

identification

question

-Walter Mischel -children acquire gender roles by imitating models and being rewarded for gender appropriate behavior -behavioral feedback paired with direct teaching by parents and other adults, reinforces gender typing

answer

Social Learning Approach

question

in the Social Learning Approach

answer

in which model does gendered behavior PRECEDE gender knowledge?

question

as cognitive explanations have come forward, the traditional social learning theory has lost favor

answer

what happened to the social learning theory?

question

it is an expansion of the social learning theory except it incorporates some cognitive elements

answer

What is the newer social cognitive theory all about?

question

observation enables children to learn much about gender-typed behaviors before performing them

answer

according to social cognitive theory....

question

it recognizes that children select or create their environments through their choice of playmates and activities

answer

what does social cognitive theory recognize?

question

they say that it does not explain how children differentiate between boys and girls before they have a concept of gender, or what initially motivates children to acquire gender knowledge, OR how gender norms become internalized

answer

what do critics say about the social cognitive theory?

question

in Kohler's theory, GENDER KNOWLEDGE PRECEDES GENDERED BEHAVIOR, and children actively search for cues about gender in their social world

answer

Kohlberg's Cognitive Developmental Theory

question

they adopt the behaviors they perceive as consistent with being male or female

answer

What happens as children become more aware of which gender they belong to?

question

he says the acquisition of gender roles hinges on gender constancy (also called sex-category constancy), which is a child's realization that his or her sex will always be the same

answer

What does Kohlberg say about gender constancy?

question

in three stages 1) Gender identity 2) Gender stability 3) Gender consistency

answer

How does gender constancy seem to develop?

question

the awareness of one's own gender and that of others, typically occurs between ages 2 and 3

answer

Gender Identity

question

comes when a girl realizes she will grow up to be a woman and a boy realizes he will grow up to be a man **children @ this stage may base judgments about gender on superficial appearances and stereotyped behaviors

answer

Gender stability

question

comes about at around 3-7, it is the realization that a girl remains a girl even if she has short hair and wears pants and a boy is a boy even if he has long hair and wears earrings

answer

Gender consistency

question

they may become less rigid in their adherence to gender norms

answer

what happens when children realize their behavior or dress will not affect their sex?

question

research challenges this view, because long before children attain the final stage of gender constancy, they show gender-typed preferences **however, this research doesn't CHALLENGE Kohlberg's original insight

answer

What does research say about Kohlberg's view?

question

true

answer

t/f today theorists no longer claim that gender constancy must precede gender-typing

question

they suggest that gender typing may be heightened by the more sophisticated understanding that gender constancy brings

answer

today, what do theorists suggest about gender typing ?

question

TRUE

answer

t/f scientists have identified significant linkage between levels of gender constancy and various aspects of gender development

question

-similar to cognitive development theory -views children as actively extracting knowledge about their gender before engaging in gender-typed behavior -places more emphasis on the influence of culture **once children KNOW what sex they are, they begin to develop a concept of what it's like to be male or female in their culture

answer

Gender-Schema Theory

question

this is a KEY concept of the gender schema theory, gender schema is a mentally organized network of info about gender that influences behavior, they usually develop with age

answer

What is a gender schema?

question

yes

answer

has it been suggested that gender schemas promote fender stereotypes by leading children to over generalize?

question

they explore how children think about gender and what they know about it at various ages

answer

how have cognitive approaches to gender development made an important contribution to these studies?

question

socialization

answer

what's one important factor that may contribute to gender development?

question

in infancy

answer

when does socialization begin?

question

between 3-4 years

answer

when does the shift from socially guided to self regulation of gender behavior in socialization happen?

question

usually experience in the family seems to reinforce gender typical behavior

answer

family influences

question

tend to be more gender socialized concerning play preferences, fathers usually show more discomfort if a boy plays with a doll than if a girl plays with a football

answer

boys and socialization

question

girls have more freedom than boys in their clothes, games, and choice of playmates

answer

girls and socialization

question

seems especially important, in a study, boys and girls whose fathers did more housework and childcare were less aware of gender stereotypes and engaged in less gender-typed play

answer

father's role in gender socialization

question

secondborns tend to be more like first borns in attitudes and firstborns are more influenced by their parents

answer

Siblings and gender

question

-major influence on gender-typing -influence increases w/ age -peers show more disapproval to boys who act like girls than girls who are tomboys -generally peer and parental attitudes reinforce each other

answer

Peer influences

question

-TV is a major transmission of cult. attitudes toward gender -social cog. theory predicts children who watch a lot of tv will become more gender typed by imitating the models they see on screen -childrens books are a source of stereotypes

answer

cultural influences

question

holds that psychological aspects of gender arise from interaction between physical characteristics of the sexes, their development, and that societies in which they live

answer

biosocial theory

question

-important to healthy development of body and brain -enables children to engage w/ world around them -contributes to all domains of development

answer

play

question

-stimulate senses -exercise muscles -coordinate sight w/ movement -gain mastery over their bodies -make decisions -acquire new skills (negotiation and conflict resolution)

answer

through play children...

question

1) cognitive complexity 2) social dimension

answer

2 ways to classify play

question

1) functional play 2) constructive play 3) dramatic play 4) games w/ rules

answer

4 levels of pretend play

question

begins in infancy, consists of repeated practice in large muscle movements ex: rolling a ball

answer

functional play

question

also called object play, is the use of objects or materials to make something like a house of blocks

answer

constructive play

question

10-15

answer

children spend _____% of time playing w/ objects

question

also called pretend play, fantasy play, or imaginative play, involves make believe objects or roles, it rests on symbolic function which develops during end of 2nd year

answer

Dramatic play

question

organized games w/ known procedures and penalties ex: hopscotch

answer

formal games w/ rules

question

LARGELY imitative, often initiated by caregiver

answer

dramatic play @ age 2

question

-she identified 6 types of play ranging from least-most social -found that as children get older, their play tends to become more social -today many researchers view Parten's study as too simplistic b/c children of all ages engage in all of Parten's categories of play

answer

Mildred Parton study

question

regarded it as less mature than social play, suggested young children who play alone may develop social, psychological or educational probs **certain types of nonsocial play MAY foster cognitive, physical and social devel.

answer

parten and nonsocial play

question

most common among children who were good problem solvers, were popular with other kids, and were seen by teachers as socially skilled

answer

parallel constructive play

question

can be a sign of shyness, anxiety, fear, social rejection

answer

solitary play

question

true

answer

t/f girls engage in more dramatic play than boys

question

refers to methods of molding character and of teaching self-control and acceptable behavior

answer

discipline

question

can be counter productive b/c children who are punished harshly may have trouble interpreting other's actions and words

answer

harsh punishment

question

use of physical force w/ intention of causing pain but not injury so as to correct or control behavior **spanking, sapping, pinching, shaking popularly believed to be more effective than other remedies and to be harmless if done in moderation by loving parents (now this is being proven false)

answer

corporal punishment

question

refers to verbal attacks that may result in psychological harm Ex: yelling, screaming, threatenig to spank, swearing at child, calling child dumb

answer

psychological aggression

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