Psych 303 Exam 1 – Flashcards

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empiricism
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use evidence from the sense or from instruments that assist the senses as the basis for conclusions
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theory data cycle
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collect data to test, change, or update theories
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theory data cycle steps
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1. theory 2. research questions 3. research design 4. hypothesis 5. data 6. data either supports theory, or leads to revisions in theory and/or research design
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theory
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set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another
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hypothesis
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way of stating the specific outcome the researcher expects to observe if the theory is accurate
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features of good scientific theories
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1. supported by data 2. falsifiable 3. parsimonious
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falsifiable
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some hypotheses that when tested may fail to support the theory
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parsimony
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all other things equal, the simplest solution is the best
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applied research
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done with a practical problem in mind want to directly apply findings to the solution of that problem in a particular real-world context
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basic research
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goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge may be applied to real-world problems later on
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translational research
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the use of lessons from basic research to develop and test applications to healthcare, psychotherapy, and other forms of treatment and intervention bridge from basic research to applied research
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journal
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contains research papers that have been peer reviewed different from journalism
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difference between journalism and journal
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public reads journalism scientists read journals journalists may publish research, beneficial if the story is important and accurate
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comparison group
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compare what would happen both with and without the thing we are interested in used in systematic data collection
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confound
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alternate explanation occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome, but other things changed as well so you don't really know what caused the outcome hard to isolate in personal expieriences, can control variables in a research setting
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two types of biases
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1. cognitive biases 2. motivational biases
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cognitive bias
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influenced by a story that makes sense or what comes to mind easily example: availability bias
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motivational bias
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want to think what we want examples: present/present bias, confirmatory hypothesis testing
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availability bias
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things that come to mind easily guide our thinking
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present/present bias
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we fail to look for absences and only notice what is present
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confirmatory hypothesis testing
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also called positive test bias select questions that lead to a particular, expected answer not scientific
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independent variable
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manipulated in experiments, measured in non-experimental designs predicts/affects dependent variable
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dependent variable
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always measured predicted/affected by the independent variable
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operationalization
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concrete definitions of variables that can be manipulated/measured
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study validity
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success with which a study has demonstrated a relationship two types: internal and external
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internal validity
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extend to which our finds provide evidence of causality 3 conditions
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3 conditions for causal relationships
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1. correlation/covariation 2. temporal precedence 3. elimination of confounds
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external validity
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extend to which research claims generalize to other samples, situations, and settings
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research design
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depends on the nature and the number of variables involved types: experimental, correlational
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experimental design
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an independent variable is manipulated only way to establish causality other confounding variables are controlled with experimental control and random assignment
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problems with experiments
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low external validity some variables cannot be manipulated
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correlational design
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variables are measured, not manipulated efficient way to get lots of data higher external validity observe relationships and make predictions
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problems with correlational studies
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little control need larger samples because harder to find effects cannot establish causality with certainty (but can rule out causality if no correlation is found)
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survey/poll
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descriptive observe and describe attitudes, opinions and behaviors
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case study
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in depth study of one case
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longitudinal research
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observe same subjects over a long period of time
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historical/archival
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examine existing data to test hypotheses
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naturalistic observation
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observe behaviors in real world settings
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measured variable
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levels are observed and recorded
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manipulated variable
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a researcher controls its levels, usually by assigning participants to different levels
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conceptual definition
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definition of a construct at theoretical level
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frequency claim
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describes rate or degree of a single variable
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association claim
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says that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable correlates/covaries/relates two or more variables, measured not manipulated
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positive association
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if one variable increases, so does the other
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negative association
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if one variable increases, the other decreases
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zero association
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two variables are not related
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causal claim
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one variable is responsible for change the other must have correlation, temporal precedence, and high internal validity
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random assignment
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can eliminate alternative explanations increases internal validity
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categorical variable
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operational variable that is a category
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quantitative variable
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variable that is coded with meaningful numbers
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ordinal scale
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ranked order
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interval scale
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equal distances between levels no true 0 (cannot get it)
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ratio scale
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equal distances between levels true 0 (0 is meaningful)
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reliability
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how consistent the results of a measure are 3 types: test-retest, inter-rater, internal consistent
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test-retest reliability
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get the same result every time the measure is used
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inter-rater reliability
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get the same data regardless of who measures
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internal consistent reliability
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consistent pattern of answers no matter how question is phrased measured with cronbach's alpha and split-half reliability
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cronbach's alpha
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correlational-based statistic shows if scales have internal reliability closer the number is to 1, the better the internal reliability
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face validity
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extent to which it appears to experts that an operational definition is a possible measure of the variable
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criteron-related validity
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measures validity of construct three types: known groups/concurrent, convergent, discriminant
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known groups/concurrent validity
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use the measure to differentiate between groups and behaviors
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convergent validity
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if the measure correlates strongly with other measures of the same construct
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discriminant validity
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if the measure correlates with measures of different constructs
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construct validity
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adequacy of operational definitions does it measure what we want it to measure
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split half reliability
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test if one half of the test correlates with the other half
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relationship between reliability and validity
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we can have reliability without validity, but we cannot have validity without reliability
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debrief
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telling participants about the study's hypotheses after the study deception revealed communicate purpose and importance return participants to original state of mind
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alternatives to deception
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role playing simulation studies honest experiments
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autonomy
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principle of respect for persons individuals are free to make up their mind if they want to participate some people have less autonomy so are entitled to special protection can withdraw at anytime without penalty don't have to answer all questions if they don't want to
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informed consent
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part of autonomy learn about the project, know the risks and benefits, and decide if they want to participate
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principle of beneficience
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protect participants from harm and ensure their well-being
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principle of justice
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fair balance between types of people who participate and the kinds of people who benefit from it
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institutional review board
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committee responsible for interpreting ethical principles and ensure research with human participants is conducted ethically
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deception
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researchers giving false information to participants
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omission
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failing to mention certain details
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commission
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actively lying
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plagiarism
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representing the ideas or words of others as ones own
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4 ethical classifications
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1. exempt (no risk) 2. minimal risk (chance of harm) 3. greater than minimal risk 4. not reserach
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scientific fraud
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fabricating data
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double-barreled question
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asks two questions in one
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negatively worded questions
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unnecessarily complicated can cause confusion
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response set
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nondifferentiation type of shortcut respondents can take consistent way of answering all questions
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socially desirable responding
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respondents give answers that make them look better
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problems with interviews
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discomfort if sensitive topics interviewer bias
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problems with questionnaires
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response rates and missing data misrepresentation of participants misunderstanding
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enticing people to do surveys
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easy to do not too long small rewards anonymity/confidentiality
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convenience sample
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biased using sample or people who are readily available to participate
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probability sampling
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random sampling everyone has an equal chance of being selected
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simple random sampling
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raffle anyone could get selected
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cluster sampling
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clusters of participants within a population are randomly selected an all individuals in the cluster are used
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multistage sampling
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random clusters are selected then random samples are taken from those clusters
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stratified random sampling
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selects particular demographic categories on purpose then randomly selects individuals within each category
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purposive sampling
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only want to study certain kinds of people so recruit in a non-random way
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snowball sampling
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participants recommend a few acquaintances for the study
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things to watch when writing questions
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complexity double-barrleed loaded negative wording response sets
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order of questions
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important questions first simple questions first, sensitive questions later with multiple topics, use logical order background/demographic questions last
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mediating variable
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explains association between two variables needs to be shown statistically
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content validity
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the measure spans the universe of all content of a construct
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Belmont report
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done because of tuskegee and milgram study laid out basics for doing research 1. beneficience 2. justice 3. autonomy
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panel study
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longitudinal research design same people participate for several years
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IACUC
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Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee makes sure studies with animals are ethical
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