question

empiricism

answer

use evidence from the sense or from instruments that assist the senses as the basis for conclusions

question

theory data cycle

answer

collect data to test, change, or update theories

question

theory data cycle steps

answer

1. theory 2. research questions 3. research design 4. hypothesis 5. data 6. data either supports theory, or leads to revisions in theory and/or research design

question

theory

answer

set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another

question

hypothesis

answer

way of stating the specific outcome the researcher expects to observe if the theory is accurate

question

features of good scientific theories

answer

1. supported by data 2. falsifiable 3. parsimonious

question

falsifiable

answer

some hypotheses that when tested may fail to support the theory

question

parsimony

answer

all other things equal, the simplest solution is the best

question

applied research

answer

done with a practical problem in mind want to directly apply findings to the solution of that problem in a particular real-world context

question

basic research

answer

goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge may be applied to real-world problems later on

question

translational research

answer

the use of lessons from basic research to develop and test applications to healthcare, psychotherapy, and other forms of treatment and intervention bridge from basic research to applied research

question

journal

answer

contains research papers that have been peer reviewed different from journalism

question

difference between journalism and journal

answer

public reads journalism scientists read journals journalists may publish research, beneficial if the story is important and accurate

question

comparison group

answer

compare what would happen both with and without the thing we are interested in used in systematic data collection

question

confound

answer

alternate explanation occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome, but other things changed as well so you don't really know what caused the outcome hard to isolate in personal expieriences, can control variables in a research setting

question

two types of biases

answer

1. cognitive biases 2. motivational biases

question

cognitive bias

answer

influenced by a story that makes sense or what comes to mind easily example: availability bias

question

motivational bias

answer

want to think what we want examples: present/present bias, confirmatory hypothesis testing

question

availability bias

answer

things that come to mind easily guide our thinking

question

present/present bias

answer

we fail to look for absences and only notice what is present

question

confirmatory hypothesis testing

answer

also called positive test bias select questions that lead to a particular, expected answer not scientific

question

independent variable

answer

manipulated in experiments, measured in non-experimental designs predicts/affects dependent variable

question

dependent variable

answer

always measured predicted/affected by the independent variable

question

operationalization

answer

concrete definitions of variables that can be manipulated/measured

question

study validity

answer

success with which a study has demonstrated a relationship two types: internal and external

question

internal validity

answer

extend to which our finds provide evidence of causality 3 conditions

question

3 conditions for causal relationships

answer

1. correlation/covariation 2. temporal precedence 3. elimination of confounds

question

external validity

answer

extend to which research claims generalize to other samples, situations, and settings

question

research design

answer

depends on the nature and the number of variables involved types: experimental, correlational

question

experimental design

answer

an independent variable is manipulated only way to establish causality other confounding variables are controlled with experimental control and random assignment

question

problems with experiments

answer

low external validity some variables cannot be manipulated

question

correlational design

answer

variables are measured, not manipulated efficient way to get lots of data higher external validity observe relationships and make predictions

question

problems with correlational studies

answer

little control need larger samples because harder to find effects cannot establish causality with certainty (but can rule out causality if no correlation is found)

question

survey/poll

answer

descriptive observe and describe attitudes, opinions and behaviors

question

case study

answer

in depth study of one case

question

longitudinal research

answer

observe same subjects over a long period of time

question

historical/archival

answer

examine existing data to test hypotheses

question

naturalistic observation

answer

observe behaviors in real world settings

question

measured variable

answer

levels are observed and recorded

question

manipulated variable

answer

a researcher controls its levels, usually by assigning participants to different levels

question

conceptual definition

answer

definition of a construct at theoretical level

question

frequency claim

answer

describes rate or degree of a single variable

question

association claim

answer

says that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable correlates/covaries/relates two or more variables, measured not manipulated

question

positive association

answer

if one variable increases, so does the other

question

negative association

answer

if one variable increases, the other decreases

question

zero association

answer

two variables are not related

question

causal claim

answer

one variable is responsible for change the other must have correlation, temporal precedence, and high internal validity

question

random assignment

answer

can eliminate alternative explanations increases internal validity

question

categorical variable

answer

operational variable that is a category

question

quantitative variable

answer

variable that is coded with meaningful numbers

question

ordinal scale

answer

ranked order

question

interval scale

answer

equal distances between levels no true 0 (cannot get it)

question

ratio scale

answer

equal distances between levels true 0 (0 is meaningful)

question

reliability

answer

how consistent the results of a measure are 3 types: test-retest, inter-rater, internal consistent

question

test-retest reliability

answer

get the same result every time the measure is used

question

inter-rater reliability

answer

get the same data regardless of who measures

question

internal consistent reliability

answer

consistent pattern of answers no matter how question is phrased measured with cronbach's alpha and split-half reliability

question

cronbach's alpha

answer

correlational-based statistic shows if scales have internal reliability closer the number is to 1, the better the internal reliability

question

face validity

answer

extent to which it appears to experts that an operational definition is a possible measure of the variable

question

criteron-related validity

answer

measures validity of construct three types: known groups/concurrent, convergent, discriminant

question

known groups/concurrent validity

answer

use the measure to differentiate between groups and behaviors

question

convergent validity

answer

if the measure correlates strongly with other measures of the same construct

question

discriminant validity

answer

if the measure correlates with measures of different constructs

question

construct validity

answer

adequacy of operational definitions does it measure what we want it to measure

question

split half reliability

answer

test if one half of the test correlates with the other half

question

relationship between reliability and validity

answer

we can have reliability without validity, but we cannot have validity without reliability

question

debrief

answer

telling participants about the study's hypotheses after the study deception revealed communicate purpose and importance return participants to original state of mind

question

alternatives to deception

answer

role playing simulation studies honest experiments

question

autonomy

answer

principle of respect for persons individuals are free to make up their mind if they want to participate some people have less autonomy so are entitled to special protection can withdraw at anytime without penalty don't have to answer all questions if they don't want to

question

informed consent

answer

part of autonomy learn about the project, know the risks and benefits, and decide if they want to participate

question

principle of beneficience

answer

protect participants from harm and ensure their well-being

question

principle of justice

answer

fair balance between types of people who participate and the kinds of people who benefit from it

question

institutional review board

answer

committee responsible for interpreting ethical principles and ensure research with human participants is conducted ethically

question

deception

answer

researchers giving false information to participants

question

omission

answer

failing to mention certain details

question

commission

answer

actively lying

question

plagiarism

answer

representing the ideas or words of others as ones own

question

4 ethical classifications

answer

1. exempt (no risk) 2. minimal risk (chance of harm) 3. greater than minimal risk 4. not reserach

question

scientific fraud

answer

fabricating data

question

double-barreled question

answer

asks two questions in one

question

negatively worded questions

answer

unnecessarily complicated can cause confusion

question

response set

answer

nondifferentiation type of shortcut respondents can take consistent way of answering all questions

question

socially desirable responding

answer

respondents give answers that make them look better

question

problems with interviews

answer

discomfort if sensitive topics interviewer bias

question

problems with questionnaires

answer

response rates and missing data misrepresentation of participants misunderstanding

question

enticing people to do surveys

answer

easy to do not too long small rewards anonymity/confidentiality

question

convenience sample

answer

biased using sample or people who are readily available to participate

question

probability sampling

answer

random sampling everyone has an equal chance of being selected

question

simple random sampling

answer

raffle anyone could get selected

question

cluster sampling

answer

clusters of participants within a population are randomly selected an all individuals in the cluster are used

question

multistage sampling

answer

random clusters are selected then random samples are taken from those clusters

question

stratified random sampling

answer

selects particular demographic categories on purpose then randomly selects individuals within each category

question

purposive sampling

answer

only want to study certain kinds of people so recruit in a non-random way

question

snowball sampling

answer

participants recommend a few acquaintances for the study

question

things to watch when writing questions

answer

complexity double-barrleed loaded negative wording response sets

question

order of questions

answer

important questions first simple questions first, sensitive questions later with multiple topics, use logical order background/demographic questions last

question

mediating variable

answer

explains association between two variables needs to be shown statistically

question

content validity

answer

the measure spans the universe of all content of a construct

question

Belmont report

answer

done because of tuskegee and milgram study laid out basics for doing research 1. beneficience 2. justice 3. autonomy

question

panel study

answer

longitudinal research design same people participate for several years

question

IACUC

answer

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee makes sure studies with animals are ethical

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