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Wilhelm Wundt

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-German -Founder of Psych -Principles of physiological psychology (author) 1874 -First psych lab at university of Leipzig in 1879

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Edward Titchener

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-English -student of Wundt -developed STRUCTURALISM which died when he did -he didn't want anyone to come up with answers that contradicted him

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Structuralism

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-First school of thought in psych -Goal was to find, label, and dissect a pure thought (a thought not contaminated with prior knowledge) --> started with sensations

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William James

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-American - started the American dominance in psych -Would've been considered a founder if he had established a lab -HAD BIGGEST IMPACT ON PSYCH -FUNCTIONALISM

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Functionalism

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-said structuralism was redundant -influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment -Study children and animals and how their behavior allows them to adapt to environment -Psych for the masses -LSD studies

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James's students

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-G. Stanley Hall (First Psych Lab in US at John Hopkins by APA) -Mary Whiton Calkins (first woman pres. of APA) -Margaret floy Washburn (first Am. woman to earn PhD in psych) -Francis C. Sumner (first black to to get PhD in psych

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Sigmund Freud

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-Saw around 100 patients in his lifetime -->developmental child theory stated that all kids are attracted to opposite sex parent -He believed in psychoanalysis (school of thought) and challenged structuralism and functionalism -woman's fault for lusting -men have higher moral ground cause they got weiners

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Psychoanalysis

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Personality theory and was a form of psychotherapy -focused on the role of unconscious factors in personality and behavior -->we don't always know why we do stuff; we just do -emphasized sexual and aggressive nature of unconscious processes -influences later theories of psych

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Pioneers of Behaviorism psych

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-Ivan Pavlov - (Russian physiologist) demonstrated that dogs could learn to associate a neutral stimulus (dinner bell ringing) with an automatic behavior (reflexively salivating to food) -John Watson - goal of behaviorists was to discover the fundamental principles of learning -- how behavior is acquired and modded in response to environ. influences. (Did some crazy unethical stuff) -B.F. Skinner - Thought psych should be restricted to studying outwardly observable behaviors that can be measured and stuff

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Pioneers of Humanistic Psych

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Carl Rogers - Established Humanism as the 3rd force in psych (behaviorism and freudianism). Emphasized person's conscious experiences, unique potential for psychological growth, self-direction/determination, free will, and the importance of choice in the human behavior. --> differs greatly from psychoanalysis and behaviorism Abraham Maslow - Theory of motivation (emphasized psychological growth)

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How do contemporary psychologists identify themselves?

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-the perspective they emphasize when they investigate psych topics -Specialty area which they practice and have been trained in

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How do psych and psychiatry differ

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Psychiatry: medical doctors --> prescribe drugs, psycho-surgery Psychology: PhD. Psych focuses on WHY, HOW, and ELIMINATE

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Major perspectives of Psychology

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Biological perspective Psychodynamic Perspective (freud) Behavioral Humanistic Positive Psychology perspective Cognitive Cross Cultural Evolutionary

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Biological Perspective

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-The physical basis of behavior -Neuroscience -Focus: Individual neurons, areas of the brain, or specific functions (eating, emotions, learning) -Development of the PET scan, MRI (fMRI -functional), and other techniques have allowed scientists to study the structure and activity of the intact brain

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Neuroscience

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The study of physiological mechanism in brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior

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Psychodynamic Perspective

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-Based originally on Freud's work -Emphasis on unconscious processes and early experience -Current psychologists with this perspective sometimes still follow Freud/psychoanalytic principles

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Behavioral Perspective

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-Say thanks to the pioneers (Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner) -Study of HOW behavior is acquired and modded thru experience and environment -Mental health pros may emphasize this perspective in explaining and treating psych disorders

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Humanistic Perspective

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-Shout out to Maslow and Rogers -Focuses on personal growth, interpersonal relationships, and self-concept -often emphasized among psychologists working in the mental health field

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Positive Psychology Perspective

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-Based on Seligman and others -studies how to contribute to optimal functioning and counterbalance with traditional emphasis on PROBS and DISORDERS -Topics include personal happiness, optimism, creativitym, resilience, character strengths, and wisdom

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Cognitive Perspective

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-Focuses on mental process, memory, perception, language, problem solving, and thinking -Based on using computers as a model for human processing

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Cross-Cultural Perspective

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-Emphasizes diversity of behavior across cultures and the fact that many earlier findings were not universal for all cultures -Ethnocentrism: belief that one's culture is superior to all others -Individualistic Culture: Western Civilizations, emphasize the needs and goals of the individual over the needs/goals of group (Baby sleeps in own room basically from day 1. Shame you to your room) -Collectivistic Culture: opposite of individualistic. (Baby always with parent. Worst thing that can happen is your fam excommunicating you. Parents rule with shame)

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Evolutionary Perspective

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-Applies the principles of evolution to explain the psychological processes -Most adaptive characteristics came about due to natural selection -David Buss

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Clinical Psychologists

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-trained in the diagnosis treatment, causes and prevention of psych disorders. -Ph.D or Psy.D degrees

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Psychiatrists

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-Medical degress (M.D. or D.O.) followed by specialized training in the diagnosis treatments, causes and prevention of psych disorders -use prescription drugs, Electro-convulsive Therapy

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Major specialties in Psychology

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-Biological Psych -Clinical: -Cognitive -Counseling: -Developmental: -Educational: -Experimental: -Health: -Industrial/organizational: -Personality: -Social: -School: -Applied:

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Clinical Specialty in psych

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Causes, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of all psych disorders

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Counseling specialty

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Helping people adjust, adapt, and cope with personal and interpersonal challenges, improving well-being, alleviating distress and maladjustment, and resolving crisis

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Developmental specialty

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Physical, social, and psychological changes that occur at different ages and stages of life span

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Educational specialty

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Applying psych principles and theories to methods of learning

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Experimental specialty

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Basic psych processes, including sensory and perceptual processes, and principles of learning, emotion, and motivation

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Health Specialty

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Psych factors in the development, prevention, and treatment of illness; stress and coping; promoting health enhancing behavior

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Industrial/organizational specialty

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relationship between people and work

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Personality specialty

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Nature of human personality, including the uniqueness of each person, traits, and individual differences

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Social specialty

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How an individual's thoughts, feeling, and behavior are affected by their social environments and by the presence of other people

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School specialty

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Applying psych principles and finding in primary and secondary schools

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Applied specialty

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Applying the findings of basic psych to diverse areas; examples include Sports psych, media psych, forensic, rehab psych

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The Scientific Method

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1. Formulate a hypothesis 2. Design a study to collect relevant data 3. Analyze data to arrive at conclusions 4. Report results --> the rationale for testing the hypothesis -->who participated in the study and how they were selected --> How variables were operationally defined --> What procedures or methods were used -->How the data was analyzed --> What the results seem to suggest

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Empirical Evidence

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-Verifiable evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation

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Hypothesis

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-A tentative statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables; a testable prediction/question

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Variable

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Factor that can vary in ways that are observable, measurable, and verified

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Operational definition

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-A precise description of how the variables in a study will be manipulated or measured

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Statistics

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Branch of math used by researchers to organize, summarize and interpret data

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Meta-analysis

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-A statistical technique that involves combining and analyzing the results of many research studies on a specific topic in order to identify overall trends

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Replicate

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-To repeat a scientific study in order to increase confidence in validity of original findings -critical for the scientific process.

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Theory

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A tentative explanation (based on empirical data) that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of various findings and observations

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Descriptive research methods

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Scientific procedures that involve systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship among behaviors and events

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Pseudoscience warning signs

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1. Testimonials rather than scientific evidence 2. Scientific jargon w/0 scientific substance 3. Combining established scientific knowledge with confounded claims 4. Irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claims 5. Confirmation bias 6. Shifting the burden of proof 7. Multiple outs

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Research Strategies

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Descriptive: describing/observing behavior. Describe set of facts, DO NOT look for relationships between facts (no infer zone), DO NOT predict what MAY influence the facts, may/may not include numerical data -->Naturalistic observation (Squirrels on campus) -->Case Studies -->Surveys -->Correlational Methods Experimental: inferring cause and effect relationships among variables

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Naturalistic Observations

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-directly observe and record behavior rather than relying on subject descriptions -Goal: to detect the behavior patterns that exist naturally -Allows researchers to study human behaviors that cannot ethically be manipulated in an experiment

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Case Studies

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-Detailed description of rare, unusual individual -Useful for clinical, neurological, and neuroscientific areas -->but not so much for public cause it's only based on a single, rare individual

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Surveys

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-Investigate opinions, behaviors or characteristics of particular group (usually self-report) -Don't work because people lie (ask the same question different ways throughout survey to get more accurate results)

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Correlation Study

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-research strategy that allows the precise calculation of how strongly related two factors are to each other -The coefficient is the magnitude and direction of the relationship between the two variables -->Positive correlation: Salary goes up, Income tax goes up -->Neg. correlation: Partying goes up, GPA goes down *The correlation doesn't always directly indicate causality* -->Only experiments allow for cause and effect statements

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Experimental method (research strategies)

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-demonstrate a cause and effect relationship tween 2 variables -Involves deliberately changing the ind. variable while measuring the changes that are produced (if any) in the dependent variable

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Main effect

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Any change that can be directly attributed to the independent or treatment variable after controlling for other possible influences

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Independent Variable

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-Purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment -Also called Treatment Variable

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Dependent Variable

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-Factor that is ovserved and measured for change in an experiment; thought to be influenced by the ind. variable -AKA Outcome Variable

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Extraneous Variable

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-A factor or variable other than the ones being studied that, if not controlled, could affect the outcome of an experiment -AKA Confounding Variable

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Experimental Group/Condition

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-Group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the independent variable

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Random Assignment

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-All participants have equal chance of being assigned to any of the experimental groups or conditions -Helps ensure that any potential differences among participants are spread out evenly across all experimental conditions

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Single-Blind Study

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-Researchers, but not the subjects, are aware of critical info

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Double-Blind Technique

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-Both the participants and the researchers interacting with them are blinded of the treatment or condition to which the participants have been assigned

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Source of Bias

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-Expectancy Effects: (Environment tell subject what to do) Change in dependent variable produced by the subject's expectancy that change should happen -Demand Characteristics: (trainer of Hans the horse effects) Subtle cues or signals by the researcher that communicate the type of responses that are expected -Placebo: Fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects -Placebo Effect: Any change attrubuted to the person's belief and expectations rather than to an actual drug, treatment, or procedure (AKA EXPECTANCY EFFECT)

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Memory

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A group of related mental processes that are involved in acquiring, storing, and retrieving information

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Three major processes for a memory

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1. Encoding 2. Storage 3. Retrieval

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Encoding

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-Transforming info into a form that can be entered and RETAINED by memory system -Obtaining

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Storage

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-Retaining info in memory so it can be used at a later time

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Retrieval

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-Recovering stored info for conscious awareness

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Memories are not a snapshot; they are...

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Reconstructed

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The Stage Model of Memory

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-Sensory Memory --> pay attention and info goes to STM --->Short-term memory-->encoding info into LTM (or retrieval when you go the opposite way) ----->Long-term memory

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Sensory Memory (Toes in shoe, clothes on body)

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-Function: to very briefly store sensory impressions so that they overlap slightly with one another -Used to view the world as continuous -Registers great deal of info from environment for a very brief period -large capacity for info -Duration: 1/4 second to 3 seconds

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Short-Term (Working) Memory

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-Temporarily holds all the info you are currently thinking about/consciously aware of -New info is transferred from sensory memory while old info is retrieved from LTM -Duration: About 20 seconds -Can be maintained longer through maintenance rehearsal -7 +/- 2 idea capacity (George Miller said dis) -->Can be increased by CHUNKING and maintenance rehearsal to encode ----> actually 4 +/- 1 when chunking not an option -Info lost may be due to DECAY or INTERFERENCE from new or competing info

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Long-Term Memory

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-Long term storage of info (potentially for lifetime) -Unlimited capacity for info -Duration: potentially permanent -Quick retrieval with little effort -Info is encoded by elaborate rehearsal, self-reference effect; visual imagery

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3 Major Categories of info in LTM

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-Procedural Memory: How to perform different skills, operations, actions -Episodic Memory: specific event or episode -Autobiographical Memory: Life event (NOT INCLUDED) -Semantic Memory: General Knowledge

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Explicit (Declarative) Memory

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-Memory with conscious recall 1.Episodic Memory (remembering vivid childhood memory of skating that drain pipe brah) 2.Semantic Memory (knowing the parts of skateboard

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Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

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-Memory w/o conscious recall 1. Procedural Memory (Riding bike, skateboard, athletes practicing)

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The Tip-Of-The-Tongue (TOT) Experience

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-knowing that specific info is stored in LTM but not being able to retrieve it -1 a week -Even people with ASL (Tip of Finger) -Know first letter of word 50% of time -90% of time it gets resolved

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3 Ways to test retrieval

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-Cued Recall: remembering info from LTM with cue -(Free)Recall: without cue -Recognition: identifying correct info from a series of possible choices

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Serial Position Effect

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-Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle (U shaped graph) 2 Parts 1. Primary Effect: tendency to recall the first items of a list 2. Recency Effect: tendency to recall final items in a list *Lists she gave in class*

Psych 201 (Exam 1) UofL (Edna Ross) – Flashcards

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