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Phrenology

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Studying bumps on the skull

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Localization of Function

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The idea that various brain regions have particular functions

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Biological Perspective

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Concerned with the links between biology & behavior

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What do phrenology & psychology's biological perspective have in common?

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They share a focus on the links between biology & behavior. Phrenology faded because it had no scientific basis - skull bumps don't reveal mental traits & abilities.

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Neuron

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A nerve cell; The basic building block of the NS; Each consists of a cell body & its branching fibers; Generates electricity from chemical events

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Cell Body

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The cell's life support center

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Dendrites

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A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages & conduct impulses toward the cell body

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Axon

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The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands; Long distances

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Myelin Sheath

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A fatty tissue layer encasing the axons of some neurons; Speeds their impulses; Insulation

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Multiple Sclerosis

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Occurs if the myelin sheath degenerates, causing slower communication to muscles & eventual loss of muscle control

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Action Potential

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A neural impulse; A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

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Resting Potential

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The fluid outside an axon's membrane has mostly positively charged ions, while its interior has mostly negatively charged ions

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Selectively Permeable

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The axon's surface is very selective about what it allows through its gates

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Refractory Period

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Resting pause; The neuron pumps Na+ back outside (NA+/K+ Pump)

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Excitatory

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Pushing a neuron's accelerator; Action potential will travel down the axon, branching into junctions; Increased stimulation will not increase the neural impulse's intensity (only will cause more neurons to fire more frequently)

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Inhibitory

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Pushing a neuron's brake

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Threshold

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The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse; All-or-none response

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Action Potential Process

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1) Neuron stimulation causes a brief change in electrical charge. If strong enough, this produces depolarization & an action potential 2) This depolarization produces another action potential a little farther along the axon. Gates in this neighboring area now open, & charged sodium atoms rush in. A pump in the cell membrane (the sodium/potassium pump) transports the sodium ions back out of the cell 3) As the action potential continues speedily down the axon, the first section has now completely recharged

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When a neuron fires an action potential, the information travels through the axon, the dendrites, and the axon's terminal branches, but not in that order. Place these 3 structures in the correct order.

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Dendrites, axon, axon's terminal branches

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How does our NS allow us to experience the difference between a slap and a tap on the back?

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Stronger stimuli (the slap) cause more neurons to fire and to fire more frequently than happens with weaker stimuli (the tap)

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Synapse

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The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron & the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

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Synaptic Gap / Synaptic Cleft

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The tiny gap at the junction

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Neurotransmitters

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Chemical messengers that diffuse across a synapse & excite or inhibit an adjacent neuron

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Reuptake

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The sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters

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Neuron Communication Process

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1) Electrical impulses (action potentials) travel down a neuron's axon until reaching a tiny junction known as a synapse 2) When an action potential reaches an axon terminal, it stimulates the release of neurotransmitter molecules. These molecules cross the synaptic gap & bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron. This allows electrically charged atoms to enter the receiving neuron & excite or inhibit a new action potential 3) The sending neuron normally reabsorbs excess neurotransmitter molecules, a process called reuptake

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What happens in the synaptic gap? What is reuptake?

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Neurons send neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) to 1 another across this tiny space between 1 neuron's terminal branch and the next neuron's dendrite. In reuptake, a sending neuron reabsorbs the extra neurotransmitters

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Acetylcholine (ACh)

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One of the most common neurotransmitters; At every junction between motor neuron & skeletal muscle; When released, muscle contracts; When blocked, muscles can't contract - Botox: ACh antagonist; Enables muscle action, learning, & memory; Too little causes Alzheimer's disease

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Dopamine

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Neurotransmitter that can either excite or inhibit; Influences mood, control of voluntary experiences & processing of rewarding experiences; Too much causes schizophrenia; Too little causes Parkinson's (tremors)

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Serotonin

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Neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, pain, & arousal; Targeted by many anti-depressants (SSRIs)

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Norepinephrine

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Neurotransmitter that helps control alertness & arousal; Too little causes depression

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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

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Neurotransmitter that is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; Prevents neurons from generating action potential; When it binds, there's an influx of Cl- into the cell; Facilitates sleep & reduces arousal of NS; E.g. Xanax: GABA agonist; Too little causes seizures, tremors, & insomnia

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Glutamate

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Neurotransmitter that is a major excitatory neurotransmitter; Involved in memory; Too much overstimulates the brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate, in food)

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Endorphins

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"Morphine within"; Natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to reduce pain & give pleasure

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Agonists

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Bind to receptors & mimic neurotransmitter effects

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Antagonists

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Bind to receptors to block a neurotransmitter's functioning

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Nervous System

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The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the PNS & CNS

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

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The brain & spinal cord; The body's decision maker

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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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The sensory & motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body; Somatic Nervous System & Autonomic Nervous System

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Nerves

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Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, & sense organs

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Sensory Neurons

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Neurons that carry incoming info from the sensory receptors to the brain & spinal cord

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Motor Neurons

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Neurons that carry outgoing info from the brain & spinal cord to the muscles & glands

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Interneurons

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Neurons that internally communicate between sensory inputs & motor outputs

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Somatic Nervous System (Skeletal NS)

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Part of PNS; Controls the body's skeletal muscles

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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

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Part of PNS; Controls the glands & muscles of the internal organs (heart); Sympathetic NS & Parasympathetic NS

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Sympathetic Nervous System

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Part of ANS; Active during fight or flight responses; Arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

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Part of ANS; Active during rest & digestion; Calms the body, conserving its energy

question

What bodily changes does your ANS direct before and after you give an important speech?

answer

Your ANS's sympathetic division will arouse you. It accelerates your heartbeat, raises your blood pressure and blood sugar, slows your digestion, and cools you with perspiration. After the speech, your ANS's parasympathetic division will reverse these effects.

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Neural Networks

answer

The work groups that the brain's neurons cluster into

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Brain

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Interprets & stores info & communicates with muscles, glands, & organs

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Spinal Cord

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A 2-way info highway connecting between the PNS & the brain; Reflexes

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Reflexes

answer

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response; Interneuron - allows the sensory neuron to communicate directly with a motor neuron in reaction to painful stimuli

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Endocrine System

answer

The body's "slow" communication system; A set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

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Hormones

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Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, & affect other tissues

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Adrenal Glands

answer

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys & secrete hormones (epinephrine & norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress; "Fight-or-flight" response

question

Pituitary gland

answer

The endocrine system's most influential gland; Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth & controls other endocrine glands

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Thyroid Gland

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Affects metabolism

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Parathyroids

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Help regulate the level of calcium in the blood

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Pancreas

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Regulates the level of sugar in the blood

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Testis

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Secretes male sex hormones

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Ovary

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Secretes female sex hormones

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Feedback System

answer

Info goes from brain to pituitary to other glands to hormones to body & brain

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Why is the pituitary gland called the "master gland"?

answer

Responding to signals from the hypothalamus, the pituitary releases hormones that trigger other endocrine glands to secrete hormones that in turn influence brain and behavior.

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How are the nervous and endocrine systems alike, and how do they differ?

answer

Both of these communication systems produce chemical molecules that act on the body's receptors to influence our behavior and emotions. The endocrine system, which secretes hormones into the bloodstream, delivers its messages much more slowly than the speedy nervous system, and the effects of the endocrine system's messages tend to linger much longer than those of the NS

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Lesion

answer

Tissue destruction; A naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

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Electroencephalogram (EEG)

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An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface; These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

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PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan

answer

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

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MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

answer

Uses magnetic fields & radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; Shows brain anatomy

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fMRI (functional MRI)

answer

Reveals bloodflow &, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; Shows brain function

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Hindbrain

answer

Medulla, Pons, Cerebellum; Basic functions that sustain the body

question

Brainstem

answer

The brain's oldest & innermost region; It begins where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; Responsible for automatic survival functions; Medulla & Pons

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Medulla

answer

The base of the brainstem; Controls heartbeat & breathing

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Pons

answer

Just above the medulla; Coordinates movements

question

Cerebellum

answer

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; Functions include processing sensory input & coordinating movement output/balance & timing

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Midbrain

answer

Controls basic sensory responses & those that are involved in the control of voluntary movement; Includes neurons that contain dense DA receptors & activity that send messages to higher brain centers that control movement

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Tectum

answer

Part of Midbrain; Coordinates the sensation of motion with actions

question

Forebrain

answer

Most visibly obvious region of the brain; Multiple interconnections & structures for complex processes like emotion, memory, thinking & reasoning; Basal Ganglia, Limbic System

question

Basal Ganglia

answer

Planned voluntary movement & reward processing; Nucleus Accumbens

question

Nucleus Accumbens

answer

Basal Ganglia; Experiencing pleasure & reward

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Limbic System

answer

Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; Associated with emotions & memory; Amygdala, Hippocampus; Thalamus, Hypothalamus

question

Amygdala

answer

Limbic System; 2 lima-bean-sized neural clusters; Memory & fear emotion

question

Hippocampus

answer

Limbic System; Greek for seahorse; Forming new memories

question

Thalamus

answer

The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; It directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex & transmits replies to the cerebellum & medulla

question

Hypothalamus

answer

Limbic System; Below the thalamus; Thermostat directing several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, & is linked to emotion & reward

question

Reticular ("Netlike") Formation

answer

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem & plays an important role in controlling arousal

question

In what brain region would damage most likely to (1) disrupt your ability to skip rope? (2) disrupt your ability to hear and taste? (3) perhaps leave you in a coma? (4) cut off the very breath and heartbeat of life?

answer

1) Cerebellum 2) Thalamus 3) Reticular formation 4) Medulla

question

Cerebral Hemispheres

answer

The 2 halves of the brain

question

Electrical stimulation of a cat's amygdala provokes angry reactions, suggesting the amygdala's role in aggression. Which ANS division is activated by such stimulation?

answer

The sympathetic nervous system.

question

Cerebral Cortex

answer

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; The body's ultimate control & information-processing center; 4 lobes

question

Glial Cells (Glia)

answer

"Glue cells"; Cells in the NS that support, nourish, & protect neurons; Also play a role in learning & thinking

question

Frontal Lobes

answer

Behind the forehead; Involved in speaking & muscle movements & in making plans & judgements; Primary Motor Cortex; Broca's Area

question

Parietal Lobes

answer

At the top of the head & toward the ear; Receives sensory input for touch & body position; Mathematical & visual-spatial tasks; Somato-sensory Area

question

Occipital Lobes

answer

Back of the head; Includes areas that receive info from the visual fields

question

Temporal Lobes

answer

Above the ears; Hearing, language, & object recognition; Wernicke's Area

question

Motor Cortex

answer

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

question

Sensory Cortex

answer

Area at the front of parietal lobes that registers & processes body touch & movement sensations

question

Association Areas

answer

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; Involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, & speaking

question

Plasticity

answer

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

question

Neurogenesis

answer

The formation of new neurons

question

Corpus Callosum

answer

The large band of neural fibers connecting the 2 brain hemispheres & carrying messages between them

question

Split Brain

answer

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's 2 hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them

question

Left Hemisphere of Brain

answer

Specializes in language & math; Processes info in analytical, piecemeal style; Speech generation - Broca's Area

question

Right Hemisphere of Brain

answer

Specializes in visual-spatial skills, recogonition of visual stimuli, musical processing; Process info in more global, holistic style; Understands language but doesn't play role in speaking

question

Biological Psychology

answer

The study of the brain, the NS, genetics, & how they relate to behavior & mental processes

question

Broca's Area

answer

Left frontal lobe, Speech generation; Damage - difficulty speaking & making grammar errors

question

Wernicke's Area

answer

Left temporal lobe; Speech comprehension; Damage - fluid, nonsensical speech with no meaning

question

Depressants - Alcohol

answer

Helps GABA shut down neurons & "relax" the drinker - "depress" the CNS; Impairments in balance & coordination; Produces euphoria & relieves anxiety; Impairs frontal lobe

question

Stimulants

answer

Increase activity of CNS; Increase blood pressure, heart rate, alertness; Cause rapid behavior & thinking; Cocaine, Amphetamines, Caffeine

question

Stimulants - Cocaine

answer

Euphoric rush of well-being; Decreases appetite; Increases DA & prevents its re-absorption; Increases NE & serotonin; Depresses respiratory system & can stop breathing; Can cause heart failure

question

Stimulants - Amphetamines

answer

Manufactured in the lab; Increase energy & alertness & lower appetite in low doses; Produce a rush, intoxication, & psychosis in high doses; Causes emotional letdown; Increases DA, NE, serotonin

question

Stimulants - Caffeine

answer

Most widely used stimulant; Increase release of DA, NE, serotonin; Increases arousal & motor activity & reduces fatigue; Increases heart rate but decreases blood supply

question

Hallucinogens

answer

Causes powerful changes in sensory perception, including strengthening perceptions & producing illusions & hallucinations; LSD, Ecstacy

question

Hallucinogens - LSD

answer

Lysergic acid diethylamide; Binds to neurons that receive serotonin & change activity; "Bad trips"; Long-term can cause psychosis or mood disorders, flashbacks

question

Hallucinogens - Ecstacy

answer

MDMA; Synthetically produced drug that is technically a stimulant but has hallucinogenic effects; Causes serotonin & some DA to be released all at once in brain - dramatically increase levels & then deplete levels; Immediate psychological problems; Increased heart rate & blood pressure; Reduced sweat production & serotonin production

question

Cannabis

answer

Produced from varieties of hemp plant; THC responsible for its effects; Most powerful is hashish, least is marijuana; Mixture of hallucinogenic, depressant, stimulant effects; Dangers include physical dependence, panic attacks, tar levels & lung disease

question

Constructive Addiction

answer

When love is returned

question

Destructive Addiction

answer

When love isn't returned

question

Initial Stage of Withdrawal

answer

Protest; Elevated levels of DA & NE that would be adaptive for any abandoned animal; Frustration - attraction

question

Secondary Stage of Withdrawal

answer

Resignation/despair; Reduced activity in the subcortical dopmanic pathways

Psych 101 – Chapter 2: Biological Psychology – Flashcards

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