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classical conditioning

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- learning to make an involuntary response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produced it - all about reflex response (little albert example) - for this to be effective, the conditioned stimulus must be distinctive - ex.: Lisa eats Canes right before getting the flu and a year later she is still nauseated at the sight of Canes

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operant conditioning

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- learning to make voluntary responses through the effects of positive or negative consequences - to skinner, this was voluntary behavior

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conditioned stimulus

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- previously neutral stimulus that begins to cause the same kind of involuntary response when paired repeatedly with the unconditioned stimulus - dog gets excited at the sound of his food bowl moving (same bowl used every time)

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unconditioned stimulus

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- original, naturally occurring stimulus that ordinarily leads to an involuntary response

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conditioned response

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- response that is given to the conditioned stimulus - emotional response that arises from: 1. parent holding a belt 2. eerie music from a movie you thought was scary 3. a Christmas tree all lit up

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unconditioned response

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- involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus

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negative reinforcement

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- removal, escape or avoidance of unpleasant stimulus - taking away something negative - ex.: leaving your apartment when your roommate and her boyfriend are fighting - ex.: layla playing a loud annoying noise to get her dog to stop biting the curtains

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positive reinforcement

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- addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus - ex.: louise makes dean's list so her parents buy her a new TV

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punishment

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- any event or stimuli that when following a behavior makes the behavior less likely to happen again

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punishment by application

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- ex.: John swears at his mother & as a result she washes his mouth out with soap

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punishment by removal

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- taking away something good - ex.: 4th grade class plays a prank on teacher & as a result she makes them stay inside for recess

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partial reinforcement effects

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- leads to a response that is resistant to extinction - schedule can be specified by the pattern/ratio of responses or by time/interval - both ratio and interval schedules can be either fixed or variable - more resistant to extinction that continuous reinforcement

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fixed interval

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- interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same

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variable interval

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- dependent on time & the times on which they are reinforced are varied - interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each event - ex.: Joe waiting various time amounts to get paid - ex.: clicker questions are random

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fixed ratio

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- number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same - ex.: for every 25 boxes tammy sells, her scout group gets $1 - ex.: loyalty card, for every 10 coffees you buy the 11th is free

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variable ratio

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- number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event - not dependent on time but of the number of behaviors - ex.: slot machines, the number of spins is random

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pavlov

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- coined term classical conditioning

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skinner

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- all about learning voluntary responses (operant conditioning) - box: used in operant conditioning of animals, which limits the available responses and thus increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur - most behaviorists made the false assumption that all responses are equally able to be conditioned to any stimulus

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tolman

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- rats in maze; latent learning

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bandura

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- observational learning - later added aggression to his studies with children and bobo dolls - says to learn anything through observation, the learner must first pay attention

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learning

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- relatively permanent, involves changes in behavior and experience - brought about by changes in experience or practice - ex.: ama slows down after seeing a police officer on the side of the road

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observational learning

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- learning of new behavior through observing a model - typically associated with bandura & bobo doll

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explicit memory

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- easy to verbal describe - declarative memories - begins to form about after age two when the hippocampus is more fully developed

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implicit memory

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- hard to verbally describe - procedural memories

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proactive interference

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- old info interfering with new into - ex.: Brian grows up in US and moves to England and has a difficult time remembering to drive on the left side of the road - ex.: marcia and david date for a long time then they break up and marcia goes on a date with a guy named oliver and accidentally calls him david

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serial position curve

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- people remember things early in the list (primacy effect) and late in the list (recency effect) - effects ex.: go to party and remember the first couple of people you met & the last person you met, but not the people in the middle of the party

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sensory memory

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- holds info in a relatively raw unprocessed form for a short time after the physical stimulus is no longer available but before this info is interpreted further up in the cognitive system - all info lost within a second or so - two types: iconic and echoic

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iconic store

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- for vision

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echoic store

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- for hearing - memory is very limited in capacity & less limited in duration

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short term memory

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- information we conscious of and can rehearse - all thinking is basically a process that occurs here - capacity -> 7 (+/- 2) - units: chunks - unrehearsed info lost in 15-30 seconds - tends to be encoded primarily in auditory form

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long term memory

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- info is retained indefinitely although some may be difficult to retrieve - declarative -> episodic - ex.: lisa spends night cramming for exam in the morning and all her information is stored here

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episodic memory

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- declarative - memory for particular events or episodes, specific time and place index - personally experienced events

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repisodic memory

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- failure of episodic memory - same as episodic memory except it never really happened

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maintenance rehearsal

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- type I - repeats the analysis of the info on the same superficial level it was carried out originally - doesn't help you remember things that much - ex.: repeat phone number until you get to your phone but once you type it you won't remember it

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elaboration rehearsal

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- type II - repeats info at a deeper level - a way of transferring info from the STM into the LTM by making the info meaningful in some way

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misinformation effect

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- the tendency of misleading info presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself

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context effects

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- to remember info it helps if you are surrounded by the same settings as you were when you learned it - ex.: diver learns first set of words underwater and repeats them underwater; learns second set of words underwater and repeats them on land; results that he had a higher percentage of correct words underwater

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encoding specificity

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- in order to remember info it helps to be surrounded by the same cues as when you learned the info

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encoding failure

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- never put the info in your memory to begin with because not paying attention - ex.: maggie pulls all nighter; goes to park bike next day at class; later that afternoon can't remember where she parked it

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semantic memory

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- organized knowledge of the world that is unassociated with any particular event or experience (facts) - type of explicit memory

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chunking

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- units of STM - strategic organization of info into meaningful units

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confirmation bias

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- a tendency to search for evidence that fits your beliefs and ignore all others - ex.: randall believes aliens landed in western US in 1950s and only goes to sites and talks with friends who support this belief

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validity

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- how well a test measures what its supposed to measure

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reliability

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- is the test able to produce the same result when given to the same person in the same/almost the same situation - a test can still be this even if it's NOT valid (car clock 5 minutes fast example) - ex.: marjorie took personality test in april, june and december and received similar scores

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morpheme

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- smallest unit of measuring within a language - in some languages, changing this of a spoken word can change its entire meaning

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IQ

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- normal mean of population of this is 100 - test is culture specific; in US are normed on predominately caucasian sample

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availability

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- represents judgments of frequent or probability based on the availability of examples in memory (ease of recall) - more english words with third letter k than first letter k - ex.: kid thinks smoking isn't unhealthy because his grandfather smoked three packs a day and lived to be 100

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activeness

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- likelihood that A belongs to or was created by B judged by the degree that A resembles B - Gambler's fallacy

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Gambler's fallacy

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- belief that a random event is more likely if it hasn't happened recently

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functional fixedness

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- refers to the fact that we have problems using objects in new ways - dunker's candle problem - ex.: jim doesn't have wine opener and doesn't realize he could use a screw and pliers

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set effects

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- habitual ways of structuring a problem which can prevent finding the best solution

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simple problems

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- well defined - don't require special knowledge - can be completed in a relatively short time (puzzles)

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problem space

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- every possible state of a problem

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heuristics

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- rule of thumb

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normative models

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- beginning in philosophy & mathematics - later formalized in economics - De Mere, Pascal, De Fermat

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descriptive models

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- psychological and tend to represent how you actually make decisions - preferences are constructed and relative - framing effects presentation of options can influence choice - loss aversion (losses loom larger)

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loss aversion

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- explains why we view loosing $5 as having a greater magnitude than gaining $5

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fMRI

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- showed the overlap between brain areas activated during visual mental imagery tasks and actual tasks involving visual perception

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kohler

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- determined that insight cannot be gained through trial and error learning alone

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cocktail party effect

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- ex.: in a room filled with people, where several conversations are going on, you are able to hear your name being spoken

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cognition

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- the mental events that take place inside a person's mind while behaving - recent studies support rosch-heider's theory of this rather than the sapir-whorf hypothesis

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communicate

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- researchers have found that animals do this with one another

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concepts

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- can help us interpret or deal with new information that we have never encountered

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conditioned taste aversion

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- ex.: coyotes ate sheep laced with lithium chloride, got extremely sick that one time, then stopped eating sheep meat

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BDNF

answer

- continued everyday learning stimulates this - it is a key protein involved in the formation of memories

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cultural bias

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- what the dove counterbalance general intelligence test was designed to highlight

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declarative memory

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- memory for facts - called this because facts are things that are known and can be stated outright

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goleman

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- said emotional intelligence is a more powerful influence on success in life than more traditional views of intelligence

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extinction

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- can be misleading because learning is relatively permanent, meaning things are not "unlearned" - a response that is reinforced after some but not all correct response tends to be very resistant to this

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familial retardation

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- developmental delay related to living in poverty - one that usually produces relatively mild intellectual disabilities

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problem representations

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- in the first study done on chess players, it was found that experts have better this

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flashbulb memories

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- ex.: people's memories of 9/11

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george miller

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- concluded that the capacity of the STM is five to nine bits of information

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gestalt legacy

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- emphasized by the role of insight

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grammer, phonemes, morphemes

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- list the elects of spoken language from least complex to most complex

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hindsight bias

answer

- ex.: marcos and friends are watching football on sundays; after some of the games, marco tells his friends he knew who would win - this is his belief that he could predict the outcome of some of the games without having been told the winners in advance

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storage stage of memory

answer

- holding information just long enough to work with it is a feature of this

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imitation

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- ex.: a five year old watches his father dunk a basketball and since the child is unable to dunk the basketball (can't reach) the child cannot learn this behavior by observing because he cannot accomplish what step

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attention, memory, imitation, desire

answer

- list the four elects of observational learning

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broadbent's filter theory

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- theory that only a stimulus that is important enough will be passed on to be analyzed for meaning in STM

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information processing model

answer

- the model of memory - includes sensory memory, STM and LTM

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japanese children

answer

- divergent thinking is especially difficult to teach to whom

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reinforcement

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- once tolman's rats were given what on the tenth day were they able to learn to find the exit almost immediately

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levels of processing

answer

- ex.: dr.mccrae encourages her students to fully understand the concepts instead of memorizing them so they will be able to remember them much longer

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hypnosis

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- makes it easier to recall some memories - also makes it easier to create false memories

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martin seligman

answer

- believed that cognition was important part of behavior

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mean

answer

- standard deviation is the average variation of scores from this

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mechanical solution

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- another term for trial and error

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memory trace

answer

- decay is the fading of this

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mental set

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- ex.: when solving a problem, if a person is hesitant or unable to think beyond solutions that have worked in the past, they are stuck in this

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gardner

answer

- theorized there are nine types of intelligence

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normative theory

answer

- theory is what modern economics is based on - represents rational decision

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descriptive theory

answer

- theory states that preferences are constructed and relative

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parallel distributed processing model

answer

- reflects the idea that memory formation is a simultaneous process - derived from the work in the developmental of artificial intelligence - can be used to explain how rapidly the points on the semantic network can be accessed

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procedural memory

answer

- ex.: once you learn how to tie your shoes, the action becomes a part of this

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prototype

answer

- ex.: derrick lives in the rugged mountains so when someone says vehicle, the first thing that comes to mind is a jeep; for derrick, a jeep is what for vehicle

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recognition

answer

- a multiple choice test requires the use of this type of retrieval process - will be used to answer questions in this test - task ex.: a word-search puzzle

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reflex

answer

- an unlearned, involuntary response that is not under personal control or choice - one of many that occur in both humans and animals

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representativeness heuristic

answer

- judgements based on representation of event in memory

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automatic encoding

answer

- a way that information enters the LTM that requires little or no effort to retrieve

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schizophrenia

answer

- a recent study showed that people in this group benefitted from computerized cognitive exercises that placed increasing demands on auditory perception

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shaping

answer

- ex.: the central idea of toilet training a cat is breaking down the process into a series of small stages

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depression

answer

- symptoms of this can predict higher false recall and recognition response

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vicarious conditioning

answer

- the classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotional by watching the reaction of another person

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visual cortex

answer

- activated by the process of forming an image - areas of this shown by PET scans

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working memory

answer

- ex.: you are taking the wechsler adult intelligence scale and come to a question that requires you to recall mixed list of numbers in correct ascending order; you are being tested for what?

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