Praxis II English Language, Literature, and Composition Content Knowledge (Test 0041) – Flashcards
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allegory
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a story in which people (or things or actions) represent an idea or generalization about life
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alliteration
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the repetition of initial consonant sounds
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allusion
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a reference to a familiar person, place, thing, or event
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analogy
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a comparison of objects or ideas that appear to be different but are alike in some important way
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anapestic meter
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meter that is composed of feet that are unaccented-unaccented-accented, usually used in a light or whimsical poetry, such as a limerick
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anecdote
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a brief story that illustrates or makes a point
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antagonist
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a person or thing working against the hero of a literary work
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aphorism
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a wise saying, usually short and written
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apostrophe
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a turn from the general audience to address a specific group of persons who is present or absent
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assonance
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a repetition of the same sound in words close to one another
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blank verse
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unrhymed verse, often occurring in iambic pentameter
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caesura
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a break in the rhythm of language, particularly a natural pause in a line of verse, marked in prosody by a double vertical line ('')
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characterization
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a method an author uses to let readers know more about the characters and their personal traits
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cliche
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an expression that has been used so often that it loses its expressive power
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consonance
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repetition of the final consonant sound in words containing different vowels
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couplet
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a stanza made up of two rhyming lines
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diction
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an author's choice of words based on their clearness, conciseness, effectiveness, and authenticity
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archaic
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old-fashioned words that are no longer used in common speech
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colloquialisms
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expressions that are usually accepted in informal situations or regions
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dialect
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a variety of language used by people from a particular geographic region
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jargon
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specialized language used in a particular field or content area
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profanity
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language that shows disrespect for others or something sacred
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slang
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informal language used by a particular group of people among themselves
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vulgarity
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language widely considered crude, disgusting, and oftentimes offensive
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end rhyme
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rhyming of the ends of lines of verse
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enjambment
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occurs when one line ends and continues onto the next line to complete meaning
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existentialism
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a philosophy that values human freedom and personal responsibility
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flashback
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a literary device in which the author jumps back in time in the chronology of a narrative
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foot
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a metrical foot is defined as one stressed syllable and a number of unstressed syllables
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iambic
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unstressed, stressed
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trochaic
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stressed, unstressed
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anapestic
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unstressed, unstressed, stressed
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dactylic
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stressed, unstressed, unstressed
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one foot
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monometer
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two feet
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dimeter
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three feet
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trimeter
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four feet
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tetrameter
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five feet
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pentameter
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six feet
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hexameter
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seven feet
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septameter
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eight feet
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octameter
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foreshadowing
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a literary technique in which the author gives hints or clues about what is to come at some point later in the story
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free verse
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verse that contains an irregular metrical pattern and line length
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genre
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a category of literature defined by its style, form, and content
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heroic couplet
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a pair of lines of poetic verse written in imabic pentameter
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hubris
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the flaw that leads to the downfall of a tragic hero; excessive pride
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hyperbole
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an exaggeration for emphasis or rhetorical effect
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imagery
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the use of words to create pictures in the reader's mind
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internal rhyme
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rhyme that occurs within a line of verse
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irony
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the use of the word or phrase to mean the exact opposite of its literal or expected meaning
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dramatic irony
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the reader sees a character's errors, but the character does not
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verbal irony
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the writer says one thing and means another
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situational irony
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the purpose of a particular action differs greatly from the result
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malapropism
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a figure of speech in which a comparison is implied but not stated
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meter
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a rhythmical pattern in verse that is made up or stressed and unstressed syllables
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mood
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the feeling a text evokes in the reader
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moral
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a lesson a work of literature is teaching
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narration
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the telling of a story
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onomatopoeia
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the use of sound words to suggest meaning
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oxymoron
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a phrase that consists of two contradictory terms
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paradox
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a contradictory statement that makes sense
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point of view
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the perspective from which the story is told
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first person point of view
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the story is told from the point of view of one character
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third person point of view
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the story is told by someone outside of the story
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omniscient point of view
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the narrator of the story shares the thoughts and feelings of all of the characters
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limited omniscient point of view
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the narrator shares the thoughts and feelings of one character
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camera view
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the narrator records the action from his or her point of view, unaware of any of the other characters' thoughts or feelings
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refrain
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the repetition of a line or phrase of a poem at regular intervals, particularly at the end of the stanza
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repetition
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the multiple use of a word, phrase, or idea for emphasis or rhythmic effect
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rhetoric
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persuasive writing
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rhythm
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the regular or random occurrence of sound in poetry
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setting
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the time and place in which the action of the story takes place
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simile
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a comparison of two unlike things, usually including the word like or as
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style
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how the author uses words, phrases, and sentences to form ideas
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symbol
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a person, place, thing, or event used to represent something else
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tone
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the overall feeling created by an author's use of words
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transcendentalism
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during the mid 19th century in New England, several writers and intellectuals worked together to write, translate works, and publish and became known as transcendentalists. Their philosophy focused on protesting the Puritan ethic and materialism. They valued individualism, freedom, experimentation, and spirituality. Noted authors included: Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry David Thoreau, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Oliver Wendell Holmes.
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verse
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a metric line of poetry
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voice
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distinctive features of a person's speech and speech patterns
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ballad
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a short poem, often written by an anonymous author, comprised of short verses intended to be sung or recited
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canto
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the main section of a long poem
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elegy
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a poem that is a mournful lament for the dead
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epic
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a long narrative poem detailing a hero's deeds
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haiku
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a type of Japanese poem that is written in 17 syllables with three lines of five, seven, and five syllables, expressing a single thought
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limerick
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a humorous verse form of five anapestic lines with a rhyme scheme of aabba
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lyric
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a short poem about personal feelings and emotions
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sonnet
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a fourteen-line poem, usually written in iambic pentameter, with a varied rhyme scheme
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Petrarchan (Italian) sonnet
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a sonnet that opens with an octave that states a proposition and ends with a sestet that states the solution
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Shakespearean sonnet
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a sonnet with three quatrains and a couplet
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stanza
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a division of poetry named for the number of lines that it contains
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triplet
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three-line stanza
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quatrain
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four-line stanza
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quintet
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five-line stanza
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sestet
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six-line stanza
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septet
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seven-line stanza
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octave
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eight-line stanza
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fable
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a short story or folktale that contains a moral, which may be expressed explicitly at the end as a maxim
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fairy tale
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a narrative that is made up of fantastic characters and creatures, such as witches, goblins, and fairies, and usually begins with the phrase "Once upon a time..."
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fantasy
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a genre that uses magic and other supernatural elements as a primary element of plot, theme, and/or setting
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folktale
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a narrative form, such as an epic, legend, myth, song, poem, or fable, that has been retold within a culture for generations
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frame tale
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a narrative technique in which the main story is composed primarily for the purpose of organizing a set of shorter stories
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historical fiction
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narrative fiction that is set in some earlier time and often contains historically authentic people, places, or events
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horror
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fiction that is intended to frighten, unsettle, or scare the reader, often overlaps with fantasy and science fiction
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legend
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a narrative about human actions that is perceived by both the teller and the listeners to have taken place within human history and that possesses certain qualities that give the tale the appearance of truth or reality
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mystery
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a suspenseful story that deals with a puzzling crime
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myth
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narrative fiction that involves gods and heroes or has a theme that expresses a culture's ideology
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novel
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an extended fictional prose narrative
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novella
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a short narrative, usually between 50-100 pages long
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parody
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a text or performance that imitates and mocks an author or work
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romance
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a novel comprised of idealized events far removed from everyday life
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satire
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literature that makes fun of social conventions or conditions, usually to evoke change
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science fiction
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fiction that deals with the current or future development of technological advances
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short story
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a brief fictional prose narrative
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tragedy
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literature, often drama, ending in a catastrophic event for the protagonist(s) after he or she faces several problems or conflicts
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western
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a novel set in the western United States featuring the experiences of cowboys and frontiersmen
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autobiography
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a person's account of his or her own life
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biography
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a story about a person's life written by another person
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document (letter, diary, journal)
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an expository piece written with eloquence that becomes part of the recognized literature of an era, often reveal historical facts, the social mores of the times, and the thought and personality of the author
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essay
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a document organized in a paragraph form that can be long or short and can be in the form of a letter, dialogue, or discussion
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Greek Classical and Hellenistic periods
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(8th to 2nd centuries BC) Examples: Homer's The Illiad, Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, Aristophanes' Lysistrata, Aristotle's Organum, and Plato's The Republic
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Roman Classical period
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(1st century BC to 2nd century AD-5th century AD) Examples: Cicero's letters to Atticus, Brutus, Quintus, and others; Virgil's The Aeneid; Ovid's Metamorphoses; Polybius' universal history of Rome; Plutarch's "Life of Pericles"; and Lucian's Dialogues of the Gods
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Renaissance
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(13th-15th centuries) a period during which learning and the arts flourished in Europe. Examples: Dante's The Divine Comedy, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur
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French Neoclassical period
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(17th century) Examples: Racine's Andromaque and de la Fontaine's Fables choises, mises en vers
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English Neoclassical period
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(17th and 18th centuries) Examples: Dryden's The Conquest of Granada and "Alexander's Feast," Swift's The Battle of the Books and Gulliver's Travels, and Pope's The Rape of the Lock
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German Neoclassical period
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(18th and 19th centuries) Examples: Lessing's Zur Gesschicte und Literatur (On History and Literature), von Schiller's Don Carlos, and Goethe's Faust
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Old English period
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(450-1066 AD) Example: Beowulf
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Middle English period
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(1066-1550) Examples: Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, More's Utopia, Malory's le Morte d'Arthur, and the morality play Everyman
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Elizabethan period
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(1550-1625) Examples: Shakespeare's Macbeth and Hamlet; Marlowe's Tamburlaine the Great, Dr. Faustus, The Jew of Malta, and Edward II; Bacon's Reports; and Spenser's The Faerie Queene
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Puritan period
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(1625-1660) Examples: Walton's The Compleat Angler, Milton's "Lycidas," and Bunyon's The Pilgrim's Progress
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Neoclassical period
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(1660-1780) Examples: Dryden's The Conquest of Granada and Pepys' Memoirs of the Royal Navy
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Romantic period
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(1780-1840) Examples: Keats' Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems; Burns' "Auld Lang Syne" and "Tam o' Shanter"; Shelly's Prometheus Unbound; Byron's Don Juan; and Austen's Pride and Prejudice and Northanger Abbey
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Victorian period
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(1840-1900) Examples: Dickens' Great Expectations, Tennyson's Poems, Hardy's Tess of the D'Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure, and Browning's Sonnets from the Portuguese
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Modernism
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(1900-1945) Examples: Yeats' In the Seven Woods, Remarques' All Quiet on the Western Front, and Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway
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Postmodernism
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(1945-present) Examples: Nietzche's The Antichrist, Orwell's 1984, and Eliot's "The Waste Land"
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Colonial period
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(1630-1760) Examples: Williams and Hooker's Bay Psalm Book, Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanack, Bradstreet's The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America, and Edward's The Freedom of the Will
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Revolutionary period
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(1760-1787) Examples: The Declaration of Independence; Jefferson's Summary View of the Rights of British America; Freneau's The British Prison Ship, "The Wild Honeysuckle," and "The Indian Burying Ground"; Tyler's The Contrast; and Brown's The Power of Sympathy
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Nationalist period
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(1828-1836) Examples: Cooper's Leatherstocking Tales, which included The Deerslayer, The Last of the Mohicans, The Pathfinder, The Pioneers, and The Prairie; Emerson's Nature, "The Over-Soul," "Compensation," and "Self-Reliance"; Irving's "Rip van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" in The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent; Poe's The Raven and Other Poems, Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque; and Longfellow's Evangeline, The Song of Hiawatha, The Courtship of Miles Standish, and Tales of a Wayside Inn, which included "Paul Revere's Ride"
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American Renaissance period
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Examples: Dickinson's poems "Life," "Love," and "Time and Eternity"; Melville's Moby-Dick; Whitman's "Oh, Captain, My Captain!" and Leaves of Grass; and Thoreau's Walden
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Modern period
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(1900-1945) Examples: Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court; London's White Fang and The Call of the Wild; Frost's "Nothing Gold Can Stay," "The Road Not Taken," and "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening"; Eliot's "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," "The Waste Land," and "Hamlet and His Problems"; James' "Daisy Miller" and Washington Square; and Parker's Enough Rope and Death and Taxes
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Contemporary period
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(1945-present) Examples: Miller's The Crucible and Death of a Salesman; Morrison's Beloved; Salinger's The Catcher in the Rye; Updike's Rabbit, Run; Plath's The Bell Jar; and Vidal's Lincoln
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conflict
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opposing elements or characters in a plot
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person versus person
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a character has a problem with one or more of the other characters
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person versus society
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a character has a problem with an element of society
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person versus self
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a character has a problem determining what to do in a situation
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person versus nature
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a character has a problem with nature
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person versus fate
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a character has to battle what appears to be an uncontrollable problem that is attributed to fate or God
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denouement
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the outcome or resolution of plot in a story
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plot
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the structure of a work of literature; the sequence of events
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phonetics
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the study of the sounds of language and their physical properties
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phonology
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the analysis of how sounds function in a language or dialect
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morphology
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the study of the structure of words
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semantics
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the study of the meaning in language
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pragmatics
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the role of the context in the interpretation of meaning
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sociolinguistics
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the study of language as it relates to society, including race, class, gender, and age
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ethnolinguistics
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the study of language as it relates to culture, frequently associated with minority linguistic groups within the larger culture
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psycholinguistics
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the study of language as it relates to the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to learn language
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historical and political influences on language acquisition
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some experts view every language as a dialect of an older communication form; for example, the Romance languages are dialects of Latin. Political relationships also influence views of language as either a new entity or a dialect. For example, English is thought to have two primary dialects--American English and British English. The United States and Great Britain are close political allies.
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dialect
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a variation of a language used by people who live in a particular geographic region
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standard dialects
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dialects supported by institutions, such as governments and schools. In English, for example, there are the Standard American English, Standard Indian English, and Standard British English
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etymology
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the study of the history and origin of words
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declarative sentence
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a sentence that makes a statement and tells about a person, place, thing, or idea
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interrogative sentence
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a sentence that asks a question
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imperative sentence
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a sentence that issues a command
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exclamatory sentence
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a sentence that communicates strong ideas or feelings
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conditional sentence
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a sentence that expresses wishes or conditions contrary to fact
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simple sentence
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a sentence that has only one independent clause and no dependent clauses. it can have a single subject or a compound subject, and a single predicate or a compound predicate
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single subject, single predicate sentence
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My dog growls; a sentence with one subject and one verb
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compound subject, single predicate sentence
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My dog and my cat growl; a sentence with two subjects that perform the same verb
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compound subject, compound predicate sentence
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My dog and my cat growl and appear agitated; a sentence with two subjects that both perform two verbs
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independent clause with two phrases
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I must have vicious pets from the pound in my town; a sentence with a subject and verb combined with two phrases
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compound sentence
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a sentence made up of two independent clauses, the clauses must be joined by a semicolon or a comma and a coordinating conjunction Example: My dog growls at the mailman, but my cat growls at her littermate.
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complex sentence
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a sentence that has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. Example: When you pass the Praxis II test [dependent clause], you'll enjoy a career in teaching [independent clause].
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compound/complex sentence
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a sentence with two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Example: I just earned my teaching degree [independent clause], and I plan to get a teaching job [independent clause] because I need a career [dependent clause].
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common nouns
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nouns that do not name specific people, places, or things Example: person, animal, car
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proper nouns
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nouns that name particular people, places, or things Example: President Obama, Chicago, Judaism
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concrete nouns
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nouns that name a thing that is tangible, they can be common or proper nouns Example: dog, Campus Cinema, football
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abstract nouns
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nouns that name an idea, condition, or feeling Example: ideals, justice, Americana
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collective nouns
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nouns that name a group or unit Example: gaggle, herd, community
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singular nouns
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Examples: book, library, child, bacterium, man
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plural nouns
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Examples: books, libraries, children, bacteria, men
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masculine nouns
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Example: father, brother, uncle, men, bull
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feminine nouns
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example: mother, sister, aunt, women, cow
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neuter nouns
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Example: window, shrub, door, college, car
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indefinite nouns
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Example: chairperson, politician, president, professor, flight attendant
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nominative case noun
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noun that can be the subject of a clause or the predicate noun when it follows the verb be
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possessive case noun
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noun that shows possession or ownership
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objective case noun
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noun that can be a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition
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transitive verb
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word or word groups that complete the meaning of a verb by naming a receiver of the action
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intransitive verb
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a verb that takes no objects or complements
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linking or connecting verb
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a verb that connects the subject and the subject complement
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auxillary or helping verb
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a verb that comes before another verb
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present tense
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used to describe situations that exist in the present time
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past tense
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used to tell about what happened in the past
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future tense
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used to express action that will take place in the future
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present perfect tense
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used when action began in the past but continues into the present
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past perfect tense
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used to express action that began in the past and happened prior to another past action
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future present tense
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used to express action that will begin in the future and will be completed in the future
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infinite phrase
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usually made up of to and the base form of the verb, such as to order or to abandon. it can function as an adjective, adverb,or noun
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participle
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a verb form that usually ends in -ing or -ed, operate as adjectives but also maintain some characteristics of verbs
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gerund phrase
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made up of a present participle and always functions as a noun
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simple pronoun
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I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who, what
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compound pronoun
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itself, myself, anybody, someone, everything
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phrasal pronoun
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each, other, one another
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antecedent
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noun to which a pronoun refers to
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personal pronouns
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pronouns that take the place of nouns
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relative pronouns
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pronouns that relate adjective clauses to the nouns or pronouns they modify
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indefinite pronouns
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pronouns that usually refer to unnamed or unknown people or things
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interrogative pronouns
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pronouns that ask a question
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demonstrative pronouns
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pronouns that point out people, places, or things without naming them
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adjectives
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describe or modify nouns or pronouns
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adverbs
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describe time, place, manner, or degree
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phrases
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groups of related words that operate as a single part of speech, such as a verb, verbal, prepositional, appositive,or absolute
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clauses
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groups of related words that have both a subject and a predicate
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comma
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used between two independent clauses, to separate adjectives, to separate contrasted elements, to set off appositives, to separate items in a list to enclose explanatory words, after an introductory phrase, after an introductory clause, to set off a nonrestrictive phrase, to ensure clarity, in numbers, to enclose titles, in direct address, to set off dialogue, to set off items in a list, and to set off dates
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period
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used at the end of a sentence, after an initial or abbreviation, or as a decimal point
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question mark
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used at the end of a direct or indirect question and to show uncertainty
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semicolon
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used to separate groups that include commas and to set off independent clauses
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exclamation point
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used to express strong feeling
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apostrophe
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used in contractions,to from plurals, to form singular possessives,to from plural possessives, in compound nouns, to show sacred possession, and to express time or amount
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dash
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used for emphasis, to set off interrupted speech, to set off an introductory series, and to indicate a sudden break
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parentheses
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used to set off explanatory information and to set off full sentences
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brackets
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used to set off added words, editorial corrections, and clarifying information
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hyphen
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used between numbers, between fractions, in a special series, to create new words, and to join numbers
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ambiguity
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occurs when there are two or more possible meanings to a word or phrase
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euphemism
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socially accepted word or phrase used to replace unacceptable language
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doublespeak
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language that is intended to be evasive or to conceal
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jargon
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specialize language of a particular group or culture
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stages of the writing process
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prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, publishing, evaluating
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prewriting
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the stage of the writing process involves gathering and selecting ideas Examples: creating lists, researching, brainstorming, reading to discover more about the author's style, talking, collecting memorabilia or clips from other texts, and free-writing
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drafting
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in this stage of the writing process, students begin writing, connecting, and developing ideas
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revising
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this stage of the writing process involves rewriting or "re-seeing", the writer looks at the piece again, the writer strives to ensure that the reader is able to make meaning of the piece of writing, emphasis is placed on examining sentence structure, word choice, voice, and organization of the piece
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editing
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this stage of the writing process involves checking for style and conventions--spelling, grammar, usage, and punctuation
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publishing
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the stage of the writing process in which the author shares his or her writing with a larger audience
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evaluating
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the stage of the writing process where the writer looks back at his or her work and self-evaluates, and the audience evaluates the effectiveness of the writing
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personal writing
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writing in which students express their innermost thoughts, feelings, and responses in journal writing, diaries, logs, personal narratives, and personal essays
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workplace writing
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writing in which middle-level and secondary students learn how to prepare resumes, cover letters, job applications, and business letters
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subject writing
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writing in which students write interviews, accounts, profiles, or descriptions to capture the meaning of the subject being written about
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creative writing
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writing that provides students with the opportunity to play with language, to express emotions, to articulate stories, or to develop a drama
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persuasive writing
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in this genre of writing, students learn rhetorical strategies to persuade others, such as by writing editorials, arguments, commentaries, and advertisements
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scholarly writing
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essays, research papers, bibliographies--these types of writing are the most prevalent in middle-and secondary-level classrooms
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reference works
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dictionaries, encyclopedias, writers' reference handbooks, books of lists, almanacs, thesauruses, and books of quotations
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internet
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each of the types of reference works online, writers can use search engines or portals to gather ideas and information
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student-created sources
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a student's personal dictionary of words to know or spell, note cards, graphic organizers, oral histories, and journals
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MLA citation
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Salinger, J. D. The Cather in the Rye. (underlined or italicized) NewYork: Little, Brown, and Company, 1945. Print.
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APA citation
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Salinger, J. D. (1945). The Catcher in the Rye. (italicized) New York: Little, Brown and Company.
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chronological order
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the writer shows order of time or the steps in the process
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classification
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the writer explains the relationship between terms or concepts
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illustration
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the topic sentence is stated and then followed by the details
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climax
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the details are stated first, followed by the topic sentence
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location
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the writer describes a person, place, or thing and organizes the description in a logical manner
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comparison
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the writer demonstrates similarities and differences between two or more subjects
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cause and effect
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the writer shows the relationship between events and their results
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creative
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speech or written form in which one expresses thoughts and feeling with imagination and creativity
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expository
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speech or written form in which one explains or describes
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persuasive
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speech or written form in which one sets forth to convince
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argument
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speech or written form that debates or argues a topic in a logical way
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analogies
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comparisons of two pairs that have the same relationship
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extended metaphor
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comparison of two unlike things used throughout a work or over a series of lines in prose or poetry
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appeal to authority
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type of argument in logic in which an expert of knowledgeable other is cited for the purpose of strengthening the argument
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appeal to emotion
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type of argument in which the author appeals to the reader's emotion to prove the argument
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sarcasm
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use of positive feedback or cutting wit to mock someone
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counterpoints
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use of contrasting ideas to communicate a message
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praise
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the use of positive messages to recognize or influence others
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synecdoche
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a device in which a part signifies the whole or the whole signifies the part. To say "threads" for "clothes" or "wheels" for "car"
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orthography
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a method of representing the sounds of a language by written or printed symbols
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metonomy
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one word substituted for another that it is closely associated with (pen mightier than the sword)
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conceit
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a fanciful, particularly clever extended metaphor
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syllogism
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a three-part deductive argument in which a conclusion is based on a major premise and a minor premise ("All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal.")
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appositive
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a word or phrase that renames a nearby noun or pronoun
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Gothic
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fantastic tales dealing with horror, the supernatural, despair, death, decay, madness, ghosts, the grotesque, and other dark subjects
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dramatic monolgue
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a lyric poem in which the speaker tells an audience about a dramatic moment in his/her life and, in doing so, reveals his/her character
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mock epic
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A work of literature that applies the characteristics and conventions of epic poetry to trivial subject matter for the sake of humor, irony, parody, or satire.
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interior monologue
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a narrative technique that records a character's internal flow of thoughts, memories, and ideas; a longish passage of uninterrupted thought
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rhetorical question
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a question asked for an effect, not actually requiring an answer
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hypothetical question
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a question that asks how a respondent might react in a given situation
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leading question
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a question that implies that one answer would be better than another
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metrics
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the study of poetic meter and the art of versification
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connotation
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an idea that is implied or suggested
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epigrams
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A short, witty poem expressing a single thought or observation
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denotation
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the most direct or specific meaning of a word or expression
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primary source
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text that tells a first-hand account of an event; original works used when researching (letters, journals)
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secondary source
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Text and/or artifacts that are not original, but written from something original (biographies, magazine articles, research papers).
