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Laws of Logic

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The foundation of all reasoning. -If they are not accepted as true, then nothing we say or reason makes any sense. These Laws are undeniable

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Law of Non-Contradiction

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Something cannot both be and not be at the same time and in the same respect ~(P&~P)

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Law of Excluded Middle

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Something either is or is not Pv~P

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Law of Identity

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Something is what it is P=P

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Premises

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Reasons

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Conclusion

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Belief that one is trying to support

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Inference

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The relationship between the premises and the conclusion

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Validity

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Refers to the structure of an argument; an argument is considered valid if the conclusion follows from the premises, invalid if conclusion does not follow premises

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Non-Sequitur

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An inference that does not follow the premises

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Truth Value

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Refers to the quality of the proposition in the argument -Has nothing to do with the validity of the argument

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Sound

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An argument is sound if it is both valid and the premises are true

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Syllogism

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The formal procedure for writing out a deductive argument

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Categorical Proposition

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A proposition that affirms or denies something in terms of two categories: subject & predicate

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Disjunctive Proposition

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A proposition which affirms or denies something in terms of two alternatives (known as alternants) in the form of an "either/or" statement

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Hypothetical Proposition

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A conditional statement that affirms or denies something in terms of an antecedent and consequent

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Antecedent

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Usually expressed as "if"

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Consequent

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Usually expressed as "then"

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Alternant

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Are only for "either", "or" arguments

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Deduction

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Form of logic made up of arguments where (if valid) the conclusion follows necessarily from, or is guaranteed by the premises

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Induction

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Logic made up of arguments which can lead only to a probable conclusion, not a necessary one

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Method of Generalization

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The most common type of inductive argument, one gathers together identical particular instances and arrives at some form of generalization

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Method of Analogy

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An argument from analogy occurs when one observes relevantly similar particulars, and attempts to arrive at a probable conclusion

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Probability Calculus

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A form of inductive argumentation where one reasons on the basis of set rules in determining the likelihood of something occurring given all the possible variables

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Statistical Reasoning

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An inductive argument based on the gathering of a sample population and arriving at averages, percentages and general trends

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Casual Inference

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An inductive argument that begins with an observed effect

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Hypothetical Reasoning

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Inductive reasoning that begins with a problem with an unknown explanation

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Hasty Generalization - Weak Induction

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Basing a conclusion on an insufficient number of particular or amount of evidence

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Sweeping Generalization - Weak Induction

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Applying a generalization to a specific case to which the rule does not apply; treating a general principle as a hard and fast rule

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False Analogy - Weak Induction

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Drawing an analogy between two things that are not similar in relevant areas

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False Cause - Weak Induction

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Assuming a casual relation when there is little or no evidence or one

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Hypostatization - Ambiguity

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Abstract terms are used concretely without clarification, usually through personification

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Equivocation - Ambiguity

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Terms change their meaning in the middle of the argument: right to an opinion, therefore opinion is right

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Begging the Question - Presumption

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The main question or issue is not really addressed, but is ignored or evaded

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Bifurcation - Presumption

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Only two options are presented when other options are possible

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Special Pleading - Presumption

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An illegitimate double standard is applied that distorts the facts

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Ad Hominem - Irrelevant

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Attacking the person who is making the argument rather than the argument itself

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Ad Populum - Irrelevant

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Appealing to the fact that a belief is popular or commonly believed as evidence for its truthfulness

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Rhetoric

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The art of persuasive writing and speaking

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Rhetoric Force

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The attempt to persuade someone to adopt a belief based on the psychological or emotive response on e has towards the idea

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Euphemism

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Expressing a proposition in a favorable or good light; using positive imagery to portray a person or situation

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Dysphemism

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Expressing a proposition in a negative or bad light; using negative imagery to portray a person or situation

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Weaselers

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A manner of phrasing an expression that allows the speaker to appear to make a direct claim while actually being evasive, vague, or ambiguous making the claim to be empty of meaning

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Downplayers

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A manner of phrasing a proposition that devalues or dismisses a claim to make it look less important than originally conceived -"just", "so called"

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Stereotypes

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A cultural belief about a specific social groups characteristics, usually expressed in a simlified or exaggerated manner; can be positive or negative

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Innuendo

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The power of indirect or subtle suggestions to disparage (say something negative about a person, event, or thing)

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Loaded Question

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A question whose purpose is to imply something rather than state it; similar to an innuendo but comes in the form of a question

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Hyperbole

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An extravagant overstatement or exaggeration normally not to be taken literally, but can influence ones thinking that a situation is better or worse than it is

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Proof Surrogate

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The suggestion that there exists legitimate evidence or authority for a claim while never actually citing it

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Modus Ponens

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If you do the work, then you'll pass the course You did the work You passed the course

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Modus Tollene

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If you do the work, then youll pass the course You did not pass the course You did not do the work

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Cultural Bias

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The tendency for us to assume that the values and practices of our culture are the way things are suppose to be

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Belief Bias

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Tendency to believe that an argument is valid and sound because we agree with its conclusion

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Confirmation Bias

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Tendency is evaluating evidence and reasons to place more weight on that which confirms our view and to be dismissive of evidence for an opponents view

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Availability Bias

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Unconsciously assigning more probability to an event due to how often one hears or thinks about it

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False Consensus Bias

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Our tendency to think that everybody agrees with us and sees things like we do

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The Bandwagon Effect

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Going along with an idea because it seems to be what the majority of people think

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Pure Hypothetical

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If, then

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Mixed Hypothetical

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Not all if and then

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