question

Cytoplasm/protoplasm

answer

colourless, viscous liquid containing water, nutrients, ions, dissolved gases and waste products: where the cellular work takes place.

question

Organelles

answer

internal cellular structures that perform the work that maintains the cell's life.

question

Nucleus

answer

control centre of the cell, contains all the genetic information and is surrounded by a double membrane.

question

Cell membrane

answer

the semipermeable membrane containing the cell and its components.

question

Lipid bilayer

answer

fatty, double membrane that makes up the cell membrane.

question

Selectively permeable

answer

Ability of the cell to allow passge of some substances in and out of the membrane, allows the cell to maintain homeostasis.

question

Enzymes

answer

Proteins that facilitate chemical reactions in cells.

question

Glucose

answer

Sugar molecule that provides energy.

question

Electrolytes

answer

Chemicals that are charged when dissolved in water, conductors.

question

Diffusion

answer

The movement of solutes from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

question

Osmosis

answer

The movement of a solvent or water through a semipermeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration. (solvent=liquid, solute= dissolved particles)

question

Osmotic pressure

answer

The tendency of water to move by osmosis.

question

Lysis

answer

cell bursting

question

Crenation

answer

cell shrinking

question

Facilitated diffusion

answer

The movement of substances from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration with the assistance of a carrier molecule.

question

Active transport

answer

The movement of a substance from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration, against a concentration gradient.

question

Endocytosis

answer

The process of bringing a substance into a cell.

question

Phagocytosis

answer

Cell eating, solid particles.

question

Pinocytosis

answer

Cell drinking.

question

Exocytosis

answer

The release of materials from the cell.

question

Proliferation

answer

The regulated process by which cells divide and reproduce.

question

Mitosis

answer

Cell division, cell divides into two seperate cells, 4 phases, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

question

Prophase

answer

Chromomsomes condense and the nuclear membrane disintegrates.

question

Metaphase

answer

The spindle fibres attach to centromeres and the chromosomes align.

question

Anaphase

answer

The chromosomes seperate and the sister chromatids move to opposite poles.

question

Telophase

answer

The sister chromatids reach opposite poles adn the nuclear envelope begins to reform.

question

Meiosis

answer

Cell division that occurs only in sperm and ova, reduces the chromosome number by half.

question

Differentiation

answer

The process by which cell become specialised in terms of cell type, structure, function and cell cycle.

question

Adaption

answer

Cells attempt to prevent their own death from environmental changes.

question

Atrophy

answer

Cells decrease in size and number because of decreased work demands on the cell, causes of atrophy include, denervation, endocrine hypofunction, inadequate nutrition and ischemia.

question

Hypertrophy

answer

Cells increase in size in an attempt to meet increased work demand, commonly seen in cardiac and skeletal muscle.

question

Hyperplasia

answer

An increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue, for example, menstruation, liver regeneration, wound healing, and skin warts.

question

Metaplasia

answer

The process in which one adult cell is replaced by another cell type, usually initiated by chronic irritation and inflammation. Metaplastic changes can be seen in ciliary changes that occur in the respiratory tract because of chronic smoking or vitamin A deficiency. Does not lead to cancerous changes, however if the stimulus is not removed, concerous changes will likely occur.

question

Dysplasia

answer

Cells mutate into cells of a different size, shape, and appearence. Is reversible by removing the trigger, often precancerous cells. Reproductive and respiratory tracts are common sites because of their increased exposure to carcinogens.

question

Programmed cell death

answer

The process of eliminating unwanted dead cells. Cell death from an irreversible cell injury. Cell injury can occur because of physical agents (for example, mechanical forces, extreme temperature), chemical injury (for example, pollution, lead, and drugs), radiation, biologic agents (for example, viruses, bacteria, and parasites), and nutrirional imbalances.

question

Apoptosis

answer

Normal and controlled cell death, cells condense or shrink.

question

Necrosis

answer

Cell death following injury, disease or failure of blood supply, cells swell and burst.

question

Ischemia

answer

Decreased blood flow to tissues or an organ, causing a shortage of oxygen and nutrients needed cellular metabolism.

question

Liquefaction necrosis

answer

Occurs when caustic enzymes dissolve and liquefy necrotic cells, most common site is the brain because it contains a plentiful supply of these enzymes.

question

Caseous necrosis

answer

The necrotic cells disintegrate, but the cellular debris remains in the are for months or years, cottage cheese-like appearance. Most commonly pulmonary tuberculosis.

question

Fat necrosis

answer

Lipase enzymes break downintracellular triglycerides into free fatty acids, which then combine with Mg, Na, and Ca and form soaps. Opaque, chalky appearance.

question

Coagulative necrosis

answer

Results from an interruption in blood flow, the pH drops, acidosis, denaturing the cells enzymes. Most often occurs in the kidneys, heart, and adrenal glands.

question

Gangrene

answer

A from of coagulative necrosis, combination of impaired blood flow and bacterial invasion. Usually occurs in the legs, because of arteriosclerosis (arteries hardening) or in the gastrointenstinal tract.

question

Dry gangrene

answer

Bacterial presence is minimal and the skin has a dry, dark brown, or black appearance.

question

Wet gangrene

answer

Occurs with liquefaction necrosis, extensive damage by bacteria and white blood cells produces a liquid wound. Occurs in the extremeties and internal organs.

question

Gas gangrene

answer

Develops because of presence of Clostridium (an anaerobic bacterium). Potentially fatal. Bacerium releases toxins that destroy surrounding cells, infection spreads rapidly. The gas bubbles underneath the skin in bubbles.

question

Free radicals

answer

Injurious, unstable agents that can cause cell death, unstable atom with odd number of electrons. Free radicals have been linked to cancer and aging.

question

Neoplasm

answer

Tumor. When cellular proliferation goes wrong. A cellular growth does not respond to normal regulatory processes, usually because of mutation.

question

Cancer

answer

The disease state associated with a neoplasm/tumor. Rapid uncontrolled proliferation and a loss of differentiation.

question

Carcinogenesis

answer

The process by which cancer develops. Three phases, initiation, promotion, and progression.

question

Initiation

answer

Invovles the exposure of the cell to the substance or event that causes DNA damage or mutation. Chemical, viruses, or radiation. The mutation can become permanent and hence be passed on to future generations.

question

Promotion

answer

Mutated cells are exposed to factors that promote growth. Nicotin, hormones, or nitrates. Can be reversible. May occur just after initiation or years later.

question

Progression

answer

Tumor invades, metastasizes (spreads), and becomes drug resistant. Permanent or irreversible.

question

Oncogenes

answer

A gene that has the potential to cause cancer. Activate cell division and embryonic development.

question

Anaplasia

answer

The of cell differentiation that occurs with cancer.

question

Benign

answer

Type of neoplasm. Less anaplastic, differentiated tumors that are producing more rapidly than normal cells. Cause fewer problems. Benign cells are often encapsulated and unable to metatasize.

question

Malignant

answer

Type of neoplasm. More anaplastic, undifferentiated, nonfunctioning cells that are reproducing rapidly. Often penetrate surrounding tissue and spread to secondary sites.

question

Cancer: clinical manifestations

answer

Anemia (red blood cell deficiency), due to blood borne cancers, chronic bleeding, malnutrition, chemotherapy, or radiation. Cachexia (wasting, dramatic weight loss and muscle atrophy), due to malnutrition. Fatigue, due to parasitic nature of tumor, anemia, malnutrition, stress, anxiety, chemotherapy. Infection increased risk due to bone marrow depression, chemotherapy and stress. leukopenia (decrease in white blood cells/leukocytes) side effect of radiation and chemotherapy. Thrombocytopenia (low platelet levels) side effect of radiation and chemotherapy. Pain, due to tissue pressure, obstructions, tissue invasion, visceral stretching, tissue destruction and inflammation.

question

Cancer: diagnosis

answer

Specific to type of cancer. Diagnostic procedures may vary depending on type cancer. Purpose is to identify and establish cytology of cancer cells, and to determine the primary site and secondary sites, if any. Screening tests include x-rays, radioisotope scanning, computed topography scans, endoscopies, ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography scanning, biopsies, and blood tests. Blood tests may include tumor markers, (substances secreted by the cancer cells), for specific cancers.

question

Cancer: diagnosis Grading

answer

Maligant cancer cells are classified on the degree of differentation on a scale of 1 to 4, in order of clinical severity. For example, grade 1 are well differentiated, so less likely to cause problems because they are more like the original tissue. Grade 4 are undifferentiated, they are less like the original tissue are more probable to cause problems.

question

Cancer: diagnosis Staging

answer

TNM staging system, evaluates tumor size, nodal involvement, and metatastic progress.

question

Cancer: treatment

answer

Chemotherapy Radiation Surgery Targeted therapy Hormone therapy Immunotherapy Hyperthermia Stem cell transplants Photodynamic therapy Laser treatment Alternative therapies Goal of treatment may be curative, palliative, or prophylactic.

question

Curative

answer

eradicate the disease

question

Palliative

answer

treat symptoms to increase comfort

question

Prophylactic

answer

prevent the disease

question

Chemotherapy

answer

Involves the administration of a wide range of medications that destroy replicating tumor cells

question

Radiation

answer

The use of ionising radiation to cause cancercellular mutation and interrupt the tumor's blood supply. May be administered internally or externally.

question

Targeted therapy

answer

Uses drugs to identify and attack cancer cells.

question

Hormone therapy

answer

Administering specific hormones thst inhibit the growth of cancer cells.

question

Immunotherapy

answer

Administering specific immune agents (interleukins, interferons) to alter the host's biological response to cancer.

question

Hyperthermia

answer

Delivers heat to a small area of cells or part of the body to destroy tumor cells. Can increase the effectiveness of radiation, immunotherapy, and chemotherapy.

question

Stem cell transplants

answer

May include peripheral blood, bone marrow, or cord blood. Used to restore stem cells in bone marrow destroyed by disease or treatment.

question

Photodynamic therapy

answer

Specific drugs are combined with light to kill cancer cells.

question

Laser

answer

Used to shrink or destroy tumor.

question

Prognosis

answer

Patient's liklehood for surviving the cancer. Dependent on the cancer's ability to metstasize.

question

Remission

answer

Period when the cancer has responded to treatment and is under control.

question

Genetics

answer

The study of heredity.

question

Congenital defects

answer

Birth defects. Usually develop during the prenatal period and are apparent at birth or shortly after.

question

Genes

answer

Carry cellular instruction and information.

question

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid

answer

Long double-stranded chain of nucleotides.

question

Nucleotides

answer

Five-carbon sugar, a phosphate, and one of four nitrogen bases (ctyosine, thymine, guanine, adenine).

question

Autosomes

answer

22 sets of paired chromosomes.

question

Karyotype

answer

A representation of a person's individual set of chromosomes.

question

Phenotype

answer

Physical expression of genes.

question

Allele

answer

One gene with many variants.

question

Homozygous

answer

A person who has identical alleles of each chromosome.

question

Heterozygous

answer

A person who has different alleles of each chromosome.

question

Dominant

answer

More pwerful allele that is expressed.

question

Recessive

answer

Less influential allele.

question

Klinefelter's Syndrome

answer

Example of X-linked disorder.

question

Autosomal dominant disorder

answer

Single gene mutations that are passed from an effected parent to an offspring regardless of sex. Occur with both homozygous and heterozygous allele pairs. Homozygous pair will have a more severe expression of the disorder. Examples include Marfan sydrome and nuerofibromatosis.

question

Marfan Syndrome

answer

Autosomal dominant disorder. Degenerative, generalised disorder of the connective tissue.

question

Marfan syndrome: pathophysiology

answer

Condition results from a single gene mutation on chromosome 15, that leads to elastin and collagen defects.

question

Marfan syndrome: clinical manifestations

answer

Increased height. Long extremeties. Arachnodactyly, long spider-like fingers. Sternum defects, funnel chest or pigeon breast. Chest asymmetry. Spine deformaties, scoliosis or kyphosis. Flat feet. Hypotonia and increased joint flexibility. Highly arched palate, crowded teeth, small lower jaw. Thin, narrow face. Nearsightedness and lens displacement. Valvular defects. Coarctation of the aorta.

question

Marfan syndrome: complications

answer

Weak joints and ligaments that are prone to injury. Cataracts. Retinal detachment. Severe mitral regurgitation. Spontaneous pneumothorax (collapsed lung). Inguinal hernia.

question

Marfan syndrome: diagnosis/ diagnostics

answer

History and physical examination. Skin biopsy, would be positive for fibrillin. X-rays, would confirm skeletal abnormalities. Echocardiogram, would revel cardiac abnormality. DNA anlaysis for the gene.

question

Marfan syndrom: treatment

answer

Focuses on relieving symptoms. Surgical repair of aneurysms and valvular defects. Surgical correction of occular deformities. Steroid and sex hormone therapy to aid in closure of long bones. Beta-adrenergic blockers to limit complications from cardiac deformaties. Bracing and physical therapy for mild scoliosis, and surgical correction for severe cases.

question

Neurofibromatosis

answer

Autosomal dominant disorder. An inherited condition involving neurogenic ( nervous system) tumors that arise from Schwann cells and other similiar cells, 30% to 50% cases do occur spontaneously. 2 types. There is an increased incidence of learning disabilities and seizure disorders. Ocular problems, scoliosis, and bone defects.

question

Type 1 Neurofibromatosis

answer

Caused by a mutation on chromosome 17. Cutaneous legions that may include raised lumps, cafe au lait spots, and freckling.

question

Type 2 Neurofibromatosis

answer

Caused by a mutation on chromosome 22. Involves bilateral acoustic (cranial nerve 8) tumors that cause hearing loss.

question

Autosomal recessive disorder

answer

Single gene mutation passed from an affected parent to an offspring regardless of sex, occur only in homozygous allele pairs. Those with heterozygous pairs are carriers only and display no symptoms. Early onset, e.g. Tay-Sachs disease and phenylketonuria (PKU).

question

Phenylketonuria PKU

answer

Autosomal recessive disorder. Mutation on chromosome 12 that creates a deficiency of the enzyme, phenlalanine hydroxylase. Leads to central nervous system damage through toxic levels of phenylalanine in the blood. If untreated leads to severe intellectual diability. Newborns are routinely screened for PKU because symptoms develop slowly and can go undetected.

question

PKU Phenylketonuria, clinical manifestations

answer

Failure to meet milestones Microcephaly Progressive neurological decline Seizures Hyperactivity Electrocardiograph (EKG) abnormalities Learning disability Mousy-smelling urine, skin, hair, and sweat Eczema

question

PKU Phenylketonuria, treatment

answer

Consumption of a diet low in phenylalanine Special infant formulas. Avoid proteins Minimise starches

question

Tay-Sachs disease

answer

Autosomal recessive disorder Caused by defective gene on chromosome 15, effects those of Jewish decent. 1 in 27 is a carrier. Deficiency or absence hexosaminidase A, an enzyme that metabolises certain lipids called gangliosides. Lipids accumulate in lysosomes of nerve cells and progressively destroy and demyelinate nerve cells. Progressive motor and nerve deterioration, causing death by 5 years old.

question

Tay-Sachs disease, clinical manifestations

answer

Occur at 3 to 10 months Exaggerated Moro reflex (startle reflex) at birth Apathy to loud sounds by 3 to 6 months old Inability to sit up, lift head, or grasp objects Difficulty turning over Progressive vision loss Deafness and blindness Seizure activity Paralysis Spasticity Pneumonia

question

Tay-Sachs disease, treatment

answer

Diagnosed by history and physical, deficient serum and amniotic hexosaminidase A levels. No cure. Treatments are supportive. Parenteral nutrition (tube feeding) pulmonary hygiene (suctioning and postural drainage) Skin care Laxatives Psychological counseling

question

Sex-Linked disorders

answer

On the sex chromosomes. Most are X-linked. Females are frequently carriers of the trait (2 x chromosomes) May be recessive or dominant. E.G. Fragile X syndrome

question

Fragile X syndrome

answer

X-linked dominant disorder Failure to express a protein necessary for neural tube development.

question

Fragile X syndrome, clinical manifestations

answer

Intellectual, learning and behavioural disabilities Prominent jaw and forehead Long, narrow face with long or large ears Connective tissue abnormalities Large testes Hyperactivity Seizures Speech and language delays Tendency to avoid eye contact

question

Fragile X syndrome, treatment

answer

Diagnosis, positive genetic test No cure Control of individual symptoms Genetic counseling for those with a positive family history Behavioural and psychological support Physical, speech and occupational therapy

question

Multifactorial disorders

answer

Interaction between genes and environment factors May be present at birth, cleft palate Expressed later in life, hypertension

question

Envirinmental factors

answer

Teratogens i.e. infections, chemicals, or radiation

question

Cleft lip and cleft palate

answer

May occur together or seperately Develop in 2nd month of pregnancy Facial structures do not fuse properly Maternal smoking and diabetes are risk factors More prevalent in Native Americans and Asian Americans May be unilateral or bilateral deformities

question

Cleft lip/palate, clinical manifestations

answer

Obvious at birth can be detected with a prenatal ultrasound

question

Cleft lip/palate, treatment

answer

Surgery Speech therapy and feeding devices

question

Chromosomal disorders

answer

Result from alteration in chromosomal duplication or number. Environmental influence in utero ( maternal age, drugs, infections) Trisomy 21 Monosomy X Polysomy X

question

Trisomy X/ Down syndrome

answer

Sponateous chromosomal mutation 3 copies of chromosome 21 Risk increases with greater parental age and environmental teratogen exposure

question

Trisomy X/ Down syndrome, clinical manifestations

answer

Hypotonia Distinctive facial features (low nasal bridge, epicanthic folds, protruding tongue, low-set ears, small open mouth) Single crease on the palm, simian crease White spots on the iris Intellectual disability Congenital heart defects Strabismus and cataracts Poorly developed genetalia Delayed puberty Early death can occur due to cardiac and pulmonary complications Increased susceptability to leukemia and infections Four-dimensional ultrasounds, amniocentesis, and serum hormone levels for detection

question

Trisomy X/ Down syndrome, treatment

answer

No cure Symptom and complication management

question

Monosomy X/ Turner's syndrome

answer

Deletion of part or all of an X chromosome Effects only females Gonadal streaks instead of ovaries Do not menstruate

question

Monosmy X/ Turner's syndrome, clinical manifestations

answer

Short stature Lymphadema of the hands and feet Braod chest with widely spaced nipples Low-set ears Small lower jaw Drooping eyelids Increased weight Small fingernails Webbing of the neck Coarctation of the aorta Horseshoe kidney Visual disturbances Ear infections Hearing loss Reduced bone mass, which increases the risk for fractures

question

Monosomy X/ Turner's syndrome, treatment

answer

Female sex hormones to promote development of secondary sex characteristics and skeletal growth. Growth hormones. Identification is often delayed until late childhood early adolescence, if clinical presentation is more subtle. Chromosomal analysis can confirm Early treatment minimises problems and complications.

question

Polysomy X/ Klinefelter's syndrome

answer

Extra X chromosome XXY chromosome Male Apparent at puberty when testicles fail to mature Infertile

question

Polysomy X/ Klinefelter's syndrome, clinical manifestations

answer

Small penis, prostrate gland, and testicles Sparse facial and body hair Sexual dysfunction Gynecomastia (breasts) Long legs with a short, obese trunk Tall stature Behavioural problems Learning disabilities Increased incidence of pulmonary disease and varicose veins. Can develop osteoporosis and breast cancer.

question

Polysomy X/ Klinefelter's syndrome, treatment

answer

Hormone levels and chromosomal testing, diagnosis Male hormone replacement to promote secondary sex characteristics. Mastectomy in cases of gynecomastia

Patho Ch 1 – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards