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when one learns by watching the behaviour demonstrated by another (model) whilst noting the positive and negative consequences of their actions and using this as a guide for one's own future actions.

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Observational Learning

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Learning occurs vicariously (indirectly) as we are only observing the actions of others and are not the ones who are initially reinforced or punished (e.g. learning to make a cup of tea by watching Grandma).

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Vicarious Learning

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when the observer demonstrates the learnt behaviour by imitating it (often referred to as a form of operant conditioning because the learning is controlled by the consequences of the model).

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Modelling

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1) Learning occurs by observing the behaviors of others and the consequences of those behaviours 2) Learning can occur without there being an immediate change in behavior - it can remain Latent 3) Cognition plays a role in observational learning because the learner has an awareness and expectations of future rewards and punishments, and these can have an effect on whether the behavior is learnt or not 4) Observational learning is the link between Behaviouralist theory of learning ( operant conditioning ) and cognitive theories ( Latent and insight learning)

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Four principles of Observational learning

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Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Reinforcement

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5 Processes in Order of Observational Learning

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the observer must actively watch/ pay attention the model as they complete the task including its consequences.

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Attention

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the observer must be able to make a mental representation of the observed behaviour and its consequences by storing it in their memory so that the observed learning can be used at a later time. At this stage, learning is said to be latent.

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Retention

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the observer must have the physical and intellectual ability to perform these actions (i.e. converting the mental representations into actions

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Reproduction

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the observer must want to perform or imitate the learnt behaviour (this usually depends whether or not the individual believes that the consequences are desirable).

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Motivation

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: if the model receives positive reinforcement, then this will increase the likelihood that the observer will repeat the behaviour

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Reinforcement

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learning by consequences. If the Model is successful, learning is more likely

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External Reinforcement

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If the model is praised, learning is more likely

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Vicarious Reinforcements

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when we meet our own goals, we reinforce our own behaviour by giving self approval

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Self-Reinforcement

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Actively Watch the dance instructor and the consequences of their behaviour.

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Dance example Attention

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You make a representation of the moves and remember them

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Retention

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You are physically and mentally capable of making the right moves

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Reproduction

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:) You find that you can do what you expected to do (self-efficacity) and want to continue

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Motivation(+ve)

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YOu don't want to reproduce the behavour; so it doesn't occur

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Motivation (-ve)

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You are given a reward for the right moves ( and the instructor smiles at you) and learning occurs more likely to reproduce the behaviour

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Reinforcement (+ve)

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See someone punished for the behaviour/ are punished for the behaviour = less likely to carry out that behaviour

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Reinforcement (-ve)

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- Live: an actual person demonstrating the behavior - Symbolic: A person portrayed in television, video games and computer games

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Models types

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The model's - Relevance - Likeability - Credibility - Attentiveness - Prestige

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Factors which increase the likelihood that a learner will pay attention

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An observer with low self-esteem and confidence are more likely to imitate the behavior of the model

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The nature of the observer

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36 boys and Girls aged 3-6 years old from Stanford Nursery - Rated personalities to create well balanced groups

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Bandura's participants

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- Observation of model's behaviour with bobo dolls and toys - Independent Groups design was used Children observed the adults in a room and then left in a room to be observed by the experimenter through a one-way mirror

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Bandura's general method

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1) No model; child sat in a room alone for 10 mins 2) Aggressive Model 3) Passive Model

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1961 Experiemental conditions

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1) Children exposed to aggressive model were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour a. Also showed more partial imitation than kids in passive model or no model 2) Boys were 3 X more violent than girls to imitate violent behaviour by a male model 3) Passive and No model were less likely to display aggressive behaviour

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1961 Results (3)

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1) Live aggressive model 2) Video aggressive model 3) Cartoon aggressive model 4) Live Passive Model (control)

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1963a Experimental Conditions

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1) Aggressive model = more likely to be aggressive 2) Live model is the most influential 3) Video and Cartoon = twice as much aggression as passive

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1963a Results (3)

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1963b 1) Highly expressive but non-aggressive models (control 1) 2)No exposure to model (control2 3) Aggressive model rewarded for aggressive behaviour 4) Aggressive model punished for behaviour

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1963B Experimental Conditions

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1) Rewarded group showed ore aggression than punished group 2) Controlling aggression was vicariously by boys with male models learnt by punished group

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1963B Results (2)

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1) Aggressive model rewarded with lollies , soft drink and praise 2) Aggressive model was punished with spankings and verbal critisim 3) Aggressive model received no consequences

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1965 Experimental Conditions

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1) No consequences and rewarded groups imitated the model more than punished group 2) When a reward was offered to children they tended to imitate models behaviour even if they had the model had been punished

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1965 Results (2)

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- Girls less likely to be physically aggressive than boys ( but they were equally likely to be verbally aggressive

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Lessons from Bandura's experiments - gender

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- Learning can occur through observation - cognitive learning; children who observed the models hit the bobo dolls learnt how to hit them but did not necessarily demonstrate learning; - The learner doesn't have to be active

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Lessons from Bandura's experiement - ways of learning

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- Reinforcement doesn't have to occur for learning to occur - Vicarious learning occurs when models are reinforced - Learning can remain latent unless reward or incentive is offered to reproduce the behavior

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Lesson's from Bandura's experiments - Reinforcement

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- Prosocial behaviour can be learnt through models

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Lesson's from Bandura's experiments - Prosocial Behaviour

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Ob - can occur vicariously (see's a friend get Prem Award) Op -> Direct: participant directly involved

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Observational VS Operant: Directness

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Ob-> Not observable unless the individual is motivated by a stimulus to display the learning that has occurred via observation and retention Op -> Observable

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Observational VS Operant: observableness of behaviour

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Ob -> Cognition is necessary Have to pay attention to the behaviour and its consequences and store a mental representation of it Op -> Cognition not always necessary

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Observational VS Operant: Cognition

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Both active

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Observational VS Operant: Role of learner ( active/ passive)

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Increases the likelihood of the learner repeating the learnt behaviour to obtain a positive outcome

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Observational VS Operant: reinforcement

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By attention; retention and reproduction

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Observational: Acquisition

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Without reinforcement or remodeling

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Observational: Extinction

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With no reinforcement and no further modeling for several trials, the environment will not elicit (motivate) the response. After a time delay, the behaviour will again be shown in the right environment

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Observational:Spon Recovery

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SAME AS OPERANT: Occurs when the correct response is made to another stimulus that is similar (but not necessarily identical) to the stimulus that was present when the conditioned response was reinforced

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Observational: Stimulus Generalisation

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SAME AS OPERANTOccurs when an organism makes the correct response to a stimulus and is reinforced, but does not respond to any other stimulus, even when stimuli are similar (but not identical

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Observational: Stimulus Discrimination

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Discriminative Stimulus = (the model's behaviour ) occurs before the behavior response

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Observational: timing of stimulus

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Consequence occurs after the response and consists of a reinforcing stimulus or an adversive stimulus

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Observational: Timing of response

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Voluntary - the learner is in control of the behavior

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Observational: Nature of Response

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