question

In development, neuronal proliferation occurs at the ___________ _____. Additionally, ______ _________ occurs within, with ________ occurring at the ______ ________.

answer

subventricular zone cell division mitosis basal membrane

question

The peak of mouse neural development is at about ____ days. This is a good time to do what?

answer

14 harvest primary neurons for in vitro experiments

question

Neurons residing in different brain regions are born at (the same/different) times.

answer

different

question

Newly born neurons migrate _________ along specialized _____________ called _______ ______ _______.

answer

radially astrocytes radial glial cells

question

One way to look at neuron placement during development is to inject the mother organism with radiolabeled _______________, which will be distributed through the nervous system. The later the radiolabeled substance is injected, the more ___________ the neurons will be.

answer

thymidine superficial

question

In terms of their migration during development, GABAergic neurons are unique in what way?

answer

They migrate tangentially (parallel to the surface of the cortex)

question

If GABAergic neuron migration is disrupted, local neurons are created with what unhelpful trait? What disease can this cause?

answer

These neurons will be active in the absence of stimulation schizophrenia

question

A low level of ______________ occurs even in the adult brain. In the hippocampus, for example, this occurs in the _______ ___________.

answer

neurogenesis dentate gyrus

question

Neurons that grow in the adult brain start out in what form and have what added challenge?

answer

bipolar the challenge of being incorporated into an already-functioning circuit

question

Different NT cells develop at different times, suggesting that _____________ may play a role in neuron development.

answer

environment

question

If _______ and __________ are mismatched, neuron growth may not occur or cell death could result.

answer

GABA and glutamate

question

In developing neurons, the initial burst of excitation comes from the NT _______.

answer

GABA

question

_____ (NT) synapses form before __________ (NT) synapses

answer

GABA before glutamate

question

During development, GABA and glutamate signals combine to form _____________ ___________ __________ (____) which have a super excitatory response. This signal is far too much for an ________, but is effective to promote _______ _______.

answer

giant depolarizing potentials (GDPs) adult neuron growth

question

GABA receptors mediate a ____ channel, which usually permits that ion (into/out of) the cell based on the ____ ___________. During development however, intracellular concentrations of this ion are (lower/higher), meaning that activation of the GABA receptor will instead permit ion (influx/efflux), effectively (polarizing/depolarizing) the cell.

answer

Cl- into ion gradient during development, intracellular Cl- is higher Cl- efflux depolarizing

question

In development, two Cl- transporters are important: (A) which is more active in adults, and (B) which is less active in adults. Which ions and in which direction does (A) transport? And (B)?

answer

*A) KCC2* K+ and Cl- out of the cell *B) NKCC1* Na+/K+ and 2Cl- into the cell

question

It is the depolarizing activity of ________ itself that turns up expression of ________, leading to the eventual shift in Cl- concentrations. Blocking ______ ___________ and ______ ________ stops this.

answer

GABA KCC2 GABAA receptors and Na+ influx

question

At what point during development do GDPs start showing up?

answer

At the peak of GABAergic synapse formation

question

During development, in addition to AMPA receptors, what is also able to remove Mg++ from the NMDA receptor and why?

answer

GABAA receptor activity; it causes depolarization

question

During development, GABA activity can cause both ____ and ____. What determines which one of these processes is initiated? The primary effect is on (pre/post)-synaptic _____ release which increases/decreases for which process?

answer

LTP and LTD source of Ca and second messenger system pre-synaptic GABA release; increased in LTP and decreased in LTD

question

The fact that, during development, GABA activity can modulate both LTP and LTD suggests what?

answer

that there must be localized domains of proteins so they "known" where a cloud of Ca++ came from

question

During development, GABA features in what kind of circuit?

answer

A feed-forward circuit, or positive feedback

question

Name a GABAA antagonist.

answer

bicuculline

question

Name a GABAA agonist.

answer

muscimol

question

Ca++ promotes the expression of _____, which in turn (inhibits/promotes) the GABAA activity.

answer

BDNF, promotes

question

During development, which 4 NTs are coupled to Gi/o and Gq? What do they do in terms of proliferation?

answer

5-HT, adenosine, NE, Ach stimulate proliferation

question

During development, which 3 NTs are coupled to Gs? What do they do in terms of proliferation?

answer

Ach, DA, NE inhibit proliferation, promote differentiation

question

Where is cholesterol produced?

answer

the liver

question

Cholesterol is hydro(philic/phobic) and __________ in the membrane.

answer

hydrophobic, embedded

question

In __________ ___________, cholesterol is used as a precursor to _________ _____________.

answer

adrenal glands stress homrones

question

There is a ________ relationship between cholesterol synthesis and concentration. This suggests what (2)?

answer

inverse 1) cholesterol experiences low turnover (it must stick around for a long time) 2) a reduction in synthesis causes an increase in cholesterol transport from periphery (where it is made)

question

What term describes the ability for membrane lipids to move about?

answer

membrane fluidity

question

In terms of membrane fluidity, in what way to lipids tend to move?

answer

along the length of the membrane; it is unfavorable for them to switch between membrane sides

question

What effect does the addition of cholesterol have on membrane fluidity? Where does this tend to occur?

answer

decreases membrane fluidity, creates a slight bulge for lipid rafts tends to occur on the axon rather than synaptic terminal

question

What is a lipid raft?

answer

More of a hypothesis; a transient high energy, high density signalling center that is organized by cholesterol

question

What kinds of membrane proteins are only anchored on the membrane, without any transmembrane regions?

answer

GPI-anchored proteins

question

Cholesterol can promote ______ dimerization, which (increases/reduces) ligand binding.

answer

GPCR reduces

question

What effect does platelet activating factor (PAF) have on glutamate (2)? In what manner?

answer

increases packaging and release of glutamate feed-forward

question

In a stroke, the remaining tissue has an usually high number of _______________.

answer

astrocytes

question

How can neuron loss be largely prevented in stroke and HIV patients?

answer

block the PAF receptor at the time of lesion

question

Name two endocannabinoids.

answer

anandamide and 2-acylglycerol (2AG)

question

What is anandamide synthesized from?

answer

phosphatidylcholine

question

What is 2-acylglycerol synthesized from?

answer

DAG

question

In order to initiate the release of endocannabinoids, ___ must activate a ______________ which cleaves a membrane protein, forming one of the two endocannabinoids.

answer

Ca++ phospholipase

question

Endocannabinoids interact with and are uptaken by the _________-coupled ____ receptor.

answer

G alpha i -coupled CB1

question

Both endocannabinoids do their work on the (pre/post)-synaptic neuron. Anandamides prompt the release of __________ while 2-acylglycerol prompts the release of _________.

answer

pre-synaptic Anandamide -> glutamate 2-AG -> GABA

question

The effects of 2-AG may be responsible for the ____ (and consequent ______ _______ __________ ______) of smoking marijuana.

answer

LDP (short term memory loss)

question

Omega ____ is bueno while omega ____ is no bueno.

answer

omega 3 = good omega 6 = bad

question

____ is a cannabinoid agonist while __________ is an anti-depressant.

answer

WIN imipramine

question

In order to benefit from the positive effects of marijuana, you must have a healthy supply of ___________ _____.

answer

omega 3

question

RNA polymerase has ____ subunits.

answer

40

question

What is the start site for transcription (sequence and AA)? What is the region upstream of this site called?

answer

methionine (ATG) the promoter region

question

What is the purpose of a ChIP Assay?

answer

to determine if a certain transcription factor binds to a specific promoter

question

ChIP Assay 1. Isolate (A) of interest. 2. Affix (B). 3. (C) chromatin (____-____ base pairs) 4. Introduce (D) that binds to the transcription factor. 5. Remove transcription factor 6. Perform (E) on the DNA, (F) fragments with their respective positions on the genome.

answer

A) nuclei B) transcription factor C) shear (100-200 base pairs) D) antibody E) PCR F) match

question

A ChIP Assay as described on another card (you know the one) would only get you how far? What could you do to find exactly where a transcription factor binds?

answer

It would only tell you the region that a transcription factor binds. Compare the bits of sequence with one another and find the sequence of base pairs that match.

question

If you were considering CREB, a microarray compares what? What would each be labeled with and where?

answer

normal CREB (red on RNA) CREB knockout (green on RNA)

question

After mixing together the tagged RNA in a microarray, what color would you expect to see if the particular gene was repressed by CREB? Promoted by CREB? Neither?

answer

green if repressed red if promoted yellow if CREB is irrelevant

question

What is a downside to the microarray and how can it be overcome?

answer

A microarray only tells you the relative amount of RNA. To overcome this, you can use RNA sequencing to count the RNA.

question

Consider the Bdnf promoter IV. What activates it and what represses it?

answer

activate: CBP repress: MEF2

question

How do you perform promoter bashing?

answer

Slowly knock off upstream end of promoter region until you see transcription suddenly drop off or jump (if that's where something is blocking the promoter).

question

What is a master regulator? Give one example.

answer

master regulator: a transcription factor that interacts with multiple promoters, either blocking or activating them mitf, eye development master regulator

question

Is CREB active or inactive when it is phosphorylated?

answer

active

question

One of the downstream elements from CREB is _________.

answer

CREM

question

CREM can be alternatively splice into what two forms?

answer

long and short

question

In order to carry out its function, CREB must ____________.

answer

dimerize

question

The long version of CREM acts in what way?

answer

almost identically to CREB; can even dimerize with it

question

The short version of CREM acts in what way?

answer

Inhibits transcription as a hetero or homo element

question

How does short CREM accomplish its action? Be specific, lad.

answer

It prevents HAT (histone acetyltransferases) from binding. Since HAT does not bind, chromatin remains tightly wound which does not leave enough room for RNA polymerase to bind.

question

Name two immediate early genes and say why they are significant.

answer

c-Fos and c-Jun They are transcription factors that were transcribed thanks to the actions of other transcription factors.

question

In order to be used for local translation, mRNA can be stored in ____________, possibly for _______ receptors.

answer

dendrites AMPA

question

mRNA and its appropriate protein are very often found together. What does this indicate?

answer

when mRNA is present, it is likely that it will indeed be translated to protein

question

When chromatin is tightly packed, it is known as what? Is it available for transcription?

answer

heterochromatin no (just a tiny bit)

question

When chromatin is loosely packed, it is known as what? Is it available for transcription?

answer

euchromatin yes

question

CREB aids in the recruitment of ____, a protein that allows RNA polymerase to bind by doing what?

answer

HAT; by relaxing chromatin

question

Acetylation is the process of transferring an acetyl group to what (specifically)? What enzyme accomplishes this? What effect does this have on chromatin and transcription?

answer

acetyl group to the histone tail histone acetyltransferases (HATs) loosens chromatin (increased transcription)

question

Methylation on histones is accomplished by what enzyme? How about for methylation on DNA? What effect does this have on chromatin and transcription?

answer

histone methyltransferase (HMT) DNA methyltransferase (DMT) tightens chromatin (decreased transcription)

question

What effect does phosphorylation of histones have?

answer

can increase or decrease transcription rate

question

Name 2 examples of writers and what it adds. Name an example of an eraser and what it removes. What does a reader do?

answer

HAT (acetyl) and HMT (methyl) HDAC (removes acetyl group) a reader recognizes the state of a cell

question

MAPK leads to the phosphorylation of _________ ___ which (decreases/increases) transcription.

answer

histone 3, increases

question

CaMK phosphorylates ______ and _______, removing them from DNA. What are both of these things?

answer

HDAC (acetyl eraser) MECP2 (methyl eraser)

question

CpG sites can be _____________, which (activates/represses) transcription through one of what two ways?

answer

methylated represses 1) preventing activator binding 2) allowing inhibitor to bind

question

There are ___ (#) sites on the _____ binding site that can be ______________.

answer

2 sites on NGFI that can be methylated

question

Hypothesis: bad maternal care results in methylation of...?

answer

one or both sites on NGFI binding site

question

The ___' site is always methylated while the ___' site is methylated with poor maternal care, regardless of pup.

answer

3' is always methylated 5' is methylated with poor maternal care

question

High maternal care actively __________________ the 5' site. The result is _______ __________ (because it isn't methylated) and _______ ___________, to aid in activity. In all, these two effects combine to do what?

answer

demethylates more binding and more acetylation more gluccocorticoid receptors

question

With good maternal care, what are the end results of the two separate pathways?

answer

1) site is demethylated, acetylated 2) increased transcription factor synthesis

question

Confocal microscopy can be used for what purpose?

answer

To see cells in three dimensions.

question

What are three issues with human neurogenesis studies?

answer

1) sources of cells are unclear 2) integration and function have not yet been addressed 3) few cells are generated, and at limited sites

question

*Apoptosis!* 1) Cell (shrinks/swells). 2) Cell develops membrane ______. :) 3) Requires synthesis of new proteins, proving what? 4) Preventable? How? 5) Will it affect nearby cells?

answer

1) shirnks 2) blebs! 3) normal cell functions continue during apoptosis 4) yes; block one of the steps 5) will not affect nearby cells

question

*Necrosis!* 1) Cell (shrinks/swells). Why? 2) (Internally/externally) mediated. 3) Cell depletes ____. Why? 4) Preventable? 5) Will it affect nearby cells?

answer

1) swells; too many (+) ions in the cell, which draws water in 2) Externally 3) ATP is depleted since pumps are working like crazy to restore ion balance 4) Nope; RIP 5) Yup. It will trigger apoptosis in nearby cells, but that process can be blocked.

question

What is the key anti-apoptotic element in humans?

answer

Bcl-2

question

What are the ultimate executioners of apoptosis in humans?

answer

caspases

question

What inhibits Bcl-2, allowing apoptosis to proceed?

answer

BAD and/or BAX

question

It is the dimer of _____ or _____ that determines apoptotic fate. A heterodimer with _____ is __________. What determines whether or not apoptosis takes place?

answer

BAX or BAD Bcl-2, neutral if there are enough pro-apoptic members

question

If apoptosis is decided upon, the ______________ release _______________ ___, which goes on to activate ______.

answer

mitochondria cytochrome C Apaf-1

question

Reactive oxygen species can attack _________ _______ which cause what two consequences?

answer

membrane lipids impaired communication and membrane leakage

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