question

empiricism

answer

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely and observation and experimentation.

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structuralism

answer

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

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functionalism

answer

a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish

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experimental psychology

answer

the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method

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behaviorism

answer

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

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humanistic psychology

answer

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and individual's potential for fostering personal growth

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cognitive neuroscience

answer

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

question

psychology

answer

The science of behavior and mental processes

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nature-nurture issue

answer

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture

question

natural selection

answer

the principle that, among the range of inherited variation, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

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levels of analysis

answer

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

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biopsychological approach

answer

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

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biological psychology

answer

a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes

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evolutionary psychology

answer

the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection

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psychodynamic psychology

answer

a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.

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behavioral psychology

answer

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

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cognitive psychology

answer

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

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social-cultural psychology

answer

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

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psychometric

answer

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

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basic research

answer

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

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developmental psychology

answer

the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

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educational psychology

answer

The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.

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personality psychology

answer

the study of individual's characteristics patter of thinking, feeling, and acting.

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social psychology

answer

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

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applied research

answer

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

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industrial organization (I/O) psychology

answer

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

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human factors psychology

answer

the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments.

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counseling psychology

answer

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

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clinical psychology

answer

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

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psychiatry

answer

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

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SQ3R

answer

a study method incorporating five steps: survey, question, read, rehearse, review.

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hindsight bias

answer

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

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critical thinking

answer

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

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theory

answer

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

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hypothesis

answer

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

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operational definition

answer

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

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replication

answer

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

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case study

answer

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

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survey

answer

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

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population

answer

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.)

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random sample

answer

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

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naturalistic observation

answer

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

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correlation

answer

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

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correlation coefficient

answer

a statistical index of the relationship between to things (from -1 to +1).

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scatterplot

answer

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slop of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

question

illusory correlation

answer

the perception of a relationship where none exists.

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experiment

answer

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

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random assignment

answer

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

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double-blind procedure

answer

an experiment procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

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placebo effect

answer

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

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experimental group

answer

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

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control group

answer

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

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independent variable

answer

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

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confounding variable

answer

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

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dependent variable

answer

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

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mode

answer

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

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mean

answer

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

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median

answer

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

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range

answer

the difference between the highest and lower scores in a distribution.

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standard deviation

answer

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

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normal curve

answer

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

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statistical significance

answer

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

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culture

answer

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted form one generation to the next.

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informed consent

answer

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

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debriefing

answer

the postexperimental explanation for a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

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biological psychology

answer

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.

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neuron

answer

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

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sensory neurons

answer

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

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motor neurons

answer

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

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interneurons

answer

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs.

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dendrite

answer

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

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axon

answer

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fivers through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

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myelin sheath

answer

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fivers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the pulse hops from one node to the next.

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action potential

answer

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

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threshold

answer

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

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synapse

answer

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at the junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.

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neurotransmitters

answer

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

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reuptake

answer

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

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endorphins

answer

"morphine within" - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

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nervous system

answer

the body's speedy electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

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central nervous system (CNS)

answer

the brain and spinal cord.

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peripheral nervous system (PNS)

answer

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

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nerves

answer

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense of organs.

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somatic nervous system

answer

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body'd skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

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autonomic nervous system

answer

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

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sympathetic nervous system

answer

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

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parasympathetic nervous system

answer

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

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reflex

answer

a simple automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

question

endocrine system

answer

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream.

question

hormones

answer

chemical messengers that are manufactured buy the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

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adrenal glands

answer

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

question

pituitary gland

answer

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

question

lesion

answer

tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

question

electroencephalogram

answer

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

question

CT (computed tomography) scan

answer

a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called CAT scan.

question

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

answer

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

question

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

answer

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. Shows brain anatomy.

question

fMRI (functional MRI)

answer

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. Shows brain function.

question

brainstem

answer

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; is responsible for automatic survival functions.

question

medulla

answer

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

question

reticular formation

answer

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

question

thalamus

answer

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory reviving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

question

cerebellum

answer

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

question

limbic system

answer

doughnut-shaped neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

question

amygdala

answer

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

question

hypothalamus

answer

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

question

cerebral cortex

answer

the intricate fabic of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

question

glial cell

answer

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

question

frontal lobes

answer

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

question

parietal lobes

answer

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

question

occipital lobes

answer

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

question

temporal lobes

answer

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

question

motor cortex

answer

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

question

sensory cortex

answer

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

question

association areas

answer

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking , and speaking.

question

aphasia

answer

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

question

Broca's area

answer

controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

question

Wernicke's area

answer

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobes.

question

plasticity

answer

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

question

neurogenesis

answer

the formation of new neurons

question

corpus callosum

answer

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

question

split brain

answer

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum connecting them).

question

consciousness

answer

our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

question

cognitive neuroscience

answer

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

question

dual processing

answer

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

question

behavior genetics

answer

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

question

environment

answer

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

question

chromosomes

answer

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

question

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

answer

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

question

genes

answer

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.

question

genome

answer

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.

question

identical twins

answer

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

question

fraternal twins

answer

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer that brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

question

heritablity

answer

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. This may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

question

interaction

answer

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

question

molecular genetics

answer

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and functions of genes.

question

evolutionary psychology

answer

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

question

natural selection

answer

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

question

mutation

answer

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

question

sensation

answer

the faculty through which the external world is apprehended

question

perception

answer

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

question

bottom-up processing

answer

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

question

top- down processing

answer

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

question

selective attention

answer

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect

question

inattentional blindness

answer

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

question

change blindness

answer

the tendency to fail to detect changes in any part of a scene to which we are not focusing our attention

question

psychophysics

answer

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

question

absolute threshold

answer

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

question

signal detection theory

answer

A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("Signal") amid background stimulation ("Noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue.

question

subliminal

answer

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

question

priming

answer

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

question

difference threshold

answer

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. (Also called just noticeable difference or JND.)

question

Weber's law

answer

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

question

sensory adaptation

answer

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

question

transduction

answer

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

question

wavelength

answer

The distance between crests of waves, such as those of the electromagnetic spectrum.

question

hue

answer

The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

question

intensity

answer

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

question

pupil

answer

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

question

iris

answer

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

question

lens

answer

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

question

retina

answer

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

question

acommodation

answer

act or state of adjustment or adaptation, changes in shape of the occular lens for various focal distances

question

rods

answer

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

question

cones

answer

Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

question

optic nerve

answer

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

question

blind spot

answer

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a blind spot because no receptor cells are located there

question

fovea

answer

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

question

feature detectors

answer

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

question

parallel processing

answer

The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

question

Young-Helmhotz trichromatic

answer

retina contains three diff color receptors (blue green red)

question

opponent-process theory

answer

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

question

audition

answer

the sense or act of hearing

question

frequency

answer

The number of complete waves that pass a given point in a certain amount of time

question

pitch

answer

a tone's highness or lowness; depends on frequency

question

middle ear

answer

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

question

cochela

answer

The fluid-filled, coiled tunnel in the inner ear that contains the receptors for hearing.

question

inner ear

answer

structures and liquids that relay sound waves to the auditory nerve fibers on a path to the brain for interpretation of sound

question

place theory

answer

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

question

frequency theory

answer

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

question

conduction hearing loss

answer

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

question

sensorieneural hearing loss

answer

hearing impairment caused by lesions or dysfunction of the cochlea or auditory nerve

question

cochlear implant

answer

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

question

kinesthesis

answer

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

question

vestibular sense

answer

a sensory system located in structures of the inner ear that registers the orientation of the head

question

gate-control theory

answer

theory that spinal cord contains neurological gate that blocks pains signals or allows them to pass. gate is opened by activity of pain going up small nerve fibers & gate is closed by act of large fibers or by info coming from brain

question

sensory interaction

answer

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

question

gestalt

answer

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

question

figure ground

answer

The organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

question

grouping

answer

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

question

depth perception

answer

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

question

visual cliff

answer

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

question

binocular cues

answer

depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes

question

retinal disparity

answer

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the close the object

question

monocular cues

answer

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

question

phi phenomenon

answer

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

question

perceptual consistency

answer

The perceptual stability of the size, shape, and brightness, and color for familiar objects seen at varying distances, different angles, and under different lighting conditions.

question

color constancy

answer

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

question

perceptual adaptation

answer

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

question

perceptual set

answer

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

question

extrasensory perception

answer

The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

question

parapsychology

answer

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

question

Consciousness

answer

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

question

Circadian rhythm

answer

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

question

REM sleep

answer

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active

question

Alpha waves

answer

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

question

Sleep

answer

periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

question

hallucinations

answer

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

question

delta waves

answer

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

question

NREM sleep

answer

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

question

insomnia

answer

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

question

narcolepsy

answer

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

question

sleep apnea

answer

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

question

night terrors

answer

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

question

dream

answer

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. ______ are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

question

manifest content

answer

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)

question

latent content

answer

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)

question

REM rebound

answer

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

question

hypnosis

answer

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

question

posthypnotic suggestion

answer

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clincians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

question

dissociation

answer

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

question

psychoactive drug

answer

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

question

tolerance

answer

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

question

withdrawal

answer

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

question

physical dependence

answer

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

question

psychological dependence

answer

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

question

addiction

answer

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

question

depressants

answer

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

question

barbiturates

answer

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

question

opiates

answer

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

question

stimulants

answer

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstacy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

question

amphetamines

answer

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

question

methamphetamine

answer

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

question

Ecstacy (MDMA)

answer

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition

question

hallucinogens

answer

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

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LSD

answer

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

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near-death experience

answer

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

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THC

answer

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

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learning

answer

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

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habituation

answer

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

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associative learning

answer

learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

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classical conditioning

answer

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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behaviorism

answer

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)

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unconditioned response

answer

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth

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unconditioned stimulus

answer

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response

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conditioned response

answer

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

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conditioned stimulus

answer

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

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acquisition

answer

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned resposne. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

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higher-order conditioning

answer

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

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extinction

answer

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

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spontaneous recovery

answer

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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generalization

answer

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for a stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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discrimination

answer

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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learned helplessness

answer

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

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respondent behavior

answer

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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operant conditioning

answer

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

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operant behavior

answer

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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law of effect

answer

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behavior followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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operant chamber

answer

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal;s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

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shaping

answer

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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discriminative stimulus

answer

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

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reinforcer

answer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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positive reinforcement

answer

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food; any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

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negative reinforcement

answer

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock; any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (NOT punishment)

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primary reinforcer

answer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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conditioned reinforcer

answer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

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continuous reinforcement

answer

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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partial (intermittent) reinforcement

answer

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of s response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinorcement

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fixed-ratio schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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variable-ratio schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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fixed-interval schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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variable-interval schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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punishment

answer

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

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cognitive map

answer

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. for example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned this

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latent learning

answer

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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insight

answer

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

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intrinsic motivation

answer

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

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extrinsic motivation

answer

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

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biofeedback

answer

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle psychological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

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observational learning

answer

learning by observing others; also called social learning

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modeling

answer

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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mirror neurons

answer

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; the brain's mirroring of another;s action may enable imitation and empathy

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prosocial behavior

answer

positive, constructive, helpful behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior

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memory

answer

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

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encoding

answer

the processing of information into the memory system

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storage

answer

the retention of encoded information over time

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retrieval

answer

the process of getting information out of memory storage

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sensory memory

answer

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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short-term memory

answer

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten

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long-term memory

answer

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

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working memory

answer

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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parallel processing

answer

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

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automatic processing

answer

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

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effortful processing

answer

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

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rehearsal

answer

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

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spacing effect

answer

the tendency for distributed study of practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice.

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serial position effect

answer

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

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visual encoding

answer

the encoding of picture images

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acoustic encoding

answer

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

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semantic encoding

answer

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

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imagery

answer

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

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menemonics

answer

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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chunking

answer

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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iconic memory

answer

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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echoic memory

answer

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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long-term potentiation

answer

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

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flashbulb memory

answer

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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amnesia

answer

the loss of memory

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implicit memory

answer

retention independent of conscious recollection. (nondeclarative or procedural memory)

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explicit memory

answer

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (declarative memory)

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hippocampus

answer

a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

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recall

answer

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

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recognition

answer

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

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relearning

answer

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

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priming

answer

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memroy

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deja vu

answer

the eerie sense that"I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

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mood-congruent memory

answer

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

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proactive interference

answer

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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retroactive interference

answer

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall fo old information

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repression

answer

the psychoanalytic theory, the basis defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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misinformation effect

answer

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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source amnesia

answer

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experiences, heard about, read about, or imagined (source misattribution) the heart of many false memories

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cognition

answer

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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concept

answer

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

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prototype

answer

a mental image or best example of a category. provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

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algorithm

answer

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problems. contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone-use of heuristics

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heuristic

answer

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

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insight

answer

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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creativity

answer

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

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confirmation bias

answer

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

question

fixation

answer

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set

question

mental set

answer

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

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functional fixedness

answer

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

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representativeness heuristic

answer

judging the likelihood o things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or math, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

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availability heuristic

answer

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

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overconfidence

answer

the tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

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belief perseverance

answer

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

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intuition

answer

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

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framing

answer

the way an issue is posed; can affect decisions and judgements

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language

answer

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

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phoneme

answer

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

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morpheme

answer

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

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grammar

answer

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

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semantics

answer

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also the study of meaning

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syntax

answer

the rules for combing words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

question

babbling stage

answer

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

question

one-word stage

answer

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

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two-word stage

answer

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

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telegraphic speech

answer

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - go car"- using mostly nouns and verbs

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linguistic determinism

answer

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

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motivation

answer

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

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instinct

answer

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

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drive-reduction theory

answer

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

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homeostasis

answer

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

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incentive

answer

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

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hierarchy of neds

answer

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

question

glucose

answer

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues; when its level is low, we feel hunger

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set point

answer

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set; when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate my act to restore the lost weight

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basal metabolic rate

answer

the body's resting rate of energy expendenture

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anorexia nervosa

answer

an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15% or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve

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bulimia nervosa

answer

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

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binge-eating disorder

answer

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa

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sexual response cycle

answer

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Jonson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

question

refractory period

answer

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

question

estrogens

answer

sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteritics; in nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

question

testosterone

answer

the most important of the male sex hormones; both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

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sexual orientation

answer

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

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emotion

answer

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

question

James-Lange theory

answer

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

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Cannon-Bard theory

answer

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

question

two-factor theory

answer

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

question

polygraph

answer

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).

question

facial feedback

answer

the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness

question

catharsis

answer

emotional release; the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

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feel-good, do-good phenomenon

answer

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

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well-being

answer

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life; used along measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life

question

adaptation-level phenomenon

answer

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

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relative deprivation

answer

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves

question

behavioral medicine

answer

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

question

health psychology

answer

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

question

stress

answer

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

question

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

answer

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, exhaustion

question

coronary heart disease

answer

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in North America

question

Type A

answer

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

question

Type B

answer

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

question

psychophysiological illness

answer

literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches

question

psychoneuroimmunology

answer

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

question

lymphocytes

answer

the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances

question

developmental psychology

answer

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

question

zygote

answer

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

question

embryo

answer

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

question

fetus

answer

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

question

teratogens

answer

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

question

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

answer

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking; in severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

question

habituation

answer

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

question

maturation

answer

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

question

cognition

answer

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and commnicating

question

schema

answer

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

question

assimilation

answer

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

question

accommodation

answer

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

question

sensorimotor stage

answer

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor acitvities

question

object permanence

answer

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

question

preoperational stage

answer

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

question

conservation

answer

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

question

egocentrism

answer

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

question

theory of mind

answer

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states -- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

question

concrete operational stage

answer

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

question

formal operational stage

answer

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

question

autism

answer

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of minds

question

stranger anxiety

answer

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

question

attachment

answer

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

question

critical period

answer

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experience produces proper development

question

imprinting

answer

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

question

temperament

answer

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

question

basic trust

answer

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

question

self-concept

answer

our understanding and evaluation of who we are

question

gender

answer

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

question

aggression

answer

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone

question

X chromosome

answer

the sex chromosome found in both men and women; females have two & males have one; one from each parent produces a female child

question

Y chromosome

answer

the sex chromosome found only in males; when paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child

question

testosterone

answer

the most important of the male sex hormones; both males & females have it, but the additional amount in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty

question

role

answer

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

question

gender role

answer

a set of expected behavior for males or for females

question

gender identity

answer

our sense of being male or female

question

gender typing

answer

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

question

social learning theory

answer

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

question

adolescence

answer

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

question

puberty

answer

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

question

primary sex characteristics

answer

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible)

question

secondary sex characteristics

answer

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

question

menarche

answer

the first menstrual period

question

identity

answer

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

question

social identity

answer

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

question

intimacy

answer

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

question

emerging adulthood

answer

for some people on modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

question

menopause

answer

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

question

cross-sectional study

answer

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

question

longitudinal study

answer

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

question

crystallized intelligence

answer

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

question

fluid intelligence

answer

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

question

social clock

answer

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

question

personality

answer

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

question

free association

answer

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

question

psychoanalysis

answer

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

question

unconscious

answer

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

question

id

answer

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. the id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

question

ego

answer

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

question

superego

answer

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

question

psychosexual stages

answer

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

question

Oedipus complex

answer

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

question

identification

answer

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos.

question

fixation

answer

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.

question

defense mechanisms

answer

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

question

repression

answer

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

question

regression

answer

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated.

question

reaction formation

answer

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites, Thus, people may express feelings that are opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

question

projection

answer

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

question

rationalization

answer

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions.

question

displacement

answer

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object of person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.

question

sublimation

answer

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people re-channel their unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities.

question

denial

answer

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

question

collective unconscious

answer

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces form our species' history.

question

projective test

answer

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one'es inner dynamics.

question

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

answer

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

question

Rorschach inkblot test

answer

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

question

terror-management theory

answer

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people' emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.

question

self-actualization

answer

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential.

question

unconditional positive regard

answer

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

question

self-concept

answer

all our thoughts and feeling about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

question

trait

answer

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

question

personality inventory

answer

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

answer

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

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empirically derived test

answer

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.

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social-cognitive perspective

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views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

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reciprocal determinism

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the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

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personal control

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the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather that feeling helpless.

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external locus of control

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the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

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internal locus of control

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the perception that you control your own fate.

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positive psychology

answer

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.

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self

answer

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

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spotlight effect

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overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunder (as if we presume a spotlight shine on us).

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self-esteem

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one's feelings of high or low self worth

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self-serving bias

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a readiness to perceive oneself favorably.

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indicisualism

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giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in therms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

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collectivism

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giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.

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intelligence test

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a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

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intelligence

answer

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

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general intelligence

answer

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

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factor analysis

answer

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

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savant syndrome

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a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.

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emotional intelligence

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the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

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mental age

answer

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.

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Stanford-Binet

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the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.

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intelligence quotient (IQ)

answer

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ=ma/ca x 100). On contemporary intelligence test, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

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achievement tests

answer

tests designed to assess what a person has learned.

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aptitude tests

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tests designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

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the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.

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standardization

answer

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

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normal curve

answer

the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes; most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

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reliability

answer

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting.

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validity

answer

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

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content validity

answer

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.

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predictive validity

answer

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity).

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intellectual disability

answer

(formerly referred to as mental retardation) a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound.

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Down syndrome

answer

a condition of intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

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stereotype threat

answer

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

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Psychological Disorder

answer

Deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

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Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

answer

A psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

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Medical Model

answer

The concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.

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DSM-IV-TR

answer

A classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other, similar problems.

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Anxiety Disorders

answer

Psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.

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Generalized Anxiety Disorder

answer

An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.

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Panic Disorder

answer

An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations.

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Phobia

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An anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation.

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Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD)

answer

An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts and/ or actions.

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Somatoform Disorder

answer

Psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a bodily form without apparent physical cause.

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Conversion Disorder

answer

A rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found.

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Hypochonriasis

answer

A somatoform disorder involving excessive concern about health and disease.

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Dissociative Disorders

answer

Disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.

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Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

answer

A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder.

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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

answer

An anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.

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Post-Traumatic Growth

answer

Positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises.

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Mood Disorders

answer

Psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes.

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Major Depressive Disorder

answer

A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities.

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Mania

answer

A mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state.

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Bipolar Disorder

answer

A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania.

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Schizophrenia

answer

A group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions.

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Delusions

answer

False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.

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Personality Disorders

answer

Psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.

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Antisocial Personality Disorder

answer

A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

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eclectic approach

answer

an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

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psychotherapy

answer

treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth

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psychoanalysis

answer

Sigmond Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences and the therapists interpretations of them released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight

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resistance

answer

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety laden material

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interpretation

answer

in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight

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transference

answer

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)

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psychodynamic therapy

answer

therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight

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insight therapies

answer

a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client's awareness of underlying motives and defenses

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client centered therapy

answer

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate client's growth. Also called person-centered therapy.

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active listening

answer

empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client centered therapy

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unconditional positive regard

answer

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

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behavior therapy

answer

therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors

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counterconditioning

answer

a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

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exposure therapies

answer

behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actualitiy) to the things they fear or avoid

question

systematic desensitization

answer

a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias

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virtual reality exposure therapy

answer

an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking

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aversive conditioning

answer

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant states (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking)

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token economy

answer

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort or exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

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cognitive therapy

answer

therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

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Aaron Beck

answer

sought to reverse patient's catastrophizing beliefs about themselves, their situations and futures using cognitive therapy

question

Donald Meichenbaum

answer

offered stress inoculation training: teaching people to restructure their thinking in stressful situations

question

cognitive behavioral therapy

answer

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy with behavior therapy

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family therapy

answer

therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other family members

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regression toward the mean

answer

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to regress toward their average

question

meta-analysis

answer

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

question

evidence based practice

answer

clinical decision-making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences

question

biomedical therapy

answer

prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient's nervous system

question

psychopharmacology

answer

the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior

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antipsychotic drugs

answer

drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder

question

tardive dyskinesia

answer

involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs that target certain dopamine receptors

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antianxiety drugs

answer

drugs used to control anxiety and agitation

question

antidepressant drugs

answer

drugs used to treat depression; also increasingly prescribed for anxiety. Different types work by altering the availability of various neurotransmitters

question

electroconvulsive therapy

answer

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an aenesthetized patient

question

repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation

answer

the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity

question

psychosurgery

answer

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior

question

lobotomy

answer

invented by Egas Moniz, a now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal loves to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain

question

resilience

answer

the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma

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social psychology

answer

scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

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attribution theory

answer

theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

question

fundamental attribution error

answer

the tendency for observes, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

question

attitude

answer

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to response in a particular way to objects, people, and events

question

central route of persuasion

answer

attitude change in which interested people focus on the actual argument and respond with favorable thoughts

question

peripheral route of persuasion

answer

attitude change in which people are influenced by incidental cues

question

foot in the door technique

answer

the tendency for people who have agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

question

role

answer

set of expectations (norms) about a social position that define how those in the position ought to behave

question

cognitive dissonance theory

answer

theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent; change our attitudes rather than our behaviors

question

conformity

answer

adjusting one's behavior/thinking to coincide with a group standard

question

normative social influence

answer

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

question

informative social influence

answer

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

question

social facilitation

answer

stronger responses on simple/well-learned tasks in the presence of others

question

social loafing

answer

tendency for people in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when by themselves

question

deindividuation

answer

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal or anonymity

question

group polarization

answer

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

question

culture

answer

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted through generations

question

norm

answer

understood rule for accepted/expected behavior

question

personal space

answer

the buffer-zone we like to maintain around our bodies

question

prejudice

answer

an unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members; generally involved stereotyped beliefs

question

stereotype

answer

generalized belief about a group of people

question

discrimination

answer

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

question

ingroup

answer

us; people with whom we share a common identity

question

outgroup

answer

them; those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

question

ingroup bias

answer

tendency to favor our own group

question

scapegoat theory

answer

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

question

other race effect

answer

the tendency to recall faced of one's own race more accurately than faces of another race

question

just world phenomenon

answer

tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

question

aggression

answer

any physical/verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

question

frustration-aggression principle

answer

the principle that frustration, the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal, creates anger which can generate aggression

question

mere-exposure effect

answer

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

question

passionate love

answer

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

question

companionate love

answer

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

question

equity

answer

a condition in which people receive from a relationship is proportional to what they give to it

question

self-disclosure

answer

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

question

altruism

answer

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

question

bystander effect

answer

tendency for any given bystander to be less likely

question

social exchange theory

answer

theory that our social behavior is an exchange process; the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

question

reciprocity norm

answer

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

question

social-responsibility norm

answer

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

question

conflict

answer

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

question

mirror-image perceptions

answer

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

question

self-fulfilling prophecy

answer

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true

question

superordinate goals

answer

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

question

GRIT

answer

strategy designed to decrease international tensions

question

social trap

answer

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Myer’s Psychology for AP* Vocabulary [All 14 Units] – Flashcards

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