question

accommodation

answer

refers to changing an existing schema to incorporate new information that cannot be assimilated.In Piaget's theory.

question

adolescence

answer

this refers to the life stage from puberty to independent adulthood, denoted physically by a growth spurt and maturation of primary and secondary sex characteristics, cognitively by the onset of formal operational thought, and socially by the formation of identity.

question

alzheimer's disease

answer

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and finally, phisical funtioning.

question

assimilation

answer

refers to interpreting a new experience in terms of an existing schema. In Piaget's theory.

question

attachment

answer

an emotional tie with another person, shown in young children by their seeking closeness to a caregiver and showing distress on separation.

question

basic trust

answer

according to Erikson is a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy - a concept that infants form if their needs are met by responsive caregiving.

question

cognition

answer

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

question

concrete operational stage

answer

the stage lasting from about ages 6 to 11, children can think logically about events and objects.

question

conservation

answer

the principle that properties such as number, volume, and mass remain constant despite changes in the forms of objects; it is acquired during the concrete operational stage.

question

critical period

answer

the limited time shortly after birth during which an organism must be exposed to certain experiences or influences if it is to develop properly.

question

cross-sectional study

answer

in this study people of different ages are compared with one another.

question

crystallized intelligence

answer

one's accumulated acknowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

question

crystallized intelligence

answer

refers to those aspects of intellectual ability, such as vocabulary and general knowledge that reflect accumulated learning. Tends to increase with age.

question

developmental psychology

answer

a branch of psychology that studies human development in physical, cognitive, and social change perspectives.

question

egocentrism

answer

in Piaget's theory refers to the difficulty that preoperational children have in considing another's viewpoint. "Ego" means "self" erring and "centrism" indicates "in the center"; the preoperational child is "self-centered."

question

embryo

answer

the developing prenatal organism from about 2 weeks through 2 months after conception.

question

fetal alcohol syndrome

answer

a syndrome that refers to the physical and cognitive abnormalities that heavy drinking by a pregnant woman may cause in the developing child.

question

fetus

answer

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

question

fluid intelligence

answer

refers to a person's ability to reason speedily and abstractly. Tends to decline with age.

question

formal operational stage

answer

in Piaget's theory normally begins about age 12. During this stage people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

question

habituation

answer

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

question

identity

answer

one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.

question

imprinting

answer

the process by which certain animals form attachments early in life, usually during a limited critical period.

question

intimacy

answer

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

question

longitudinal study

answer

in this study the same people are tested and retested over a period of years.

question

maturation

answer

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

question

menarche

answer

the first menstrual period.

question

menopause

answer

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

question

object permanance

answer

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

question

preoperational stage

answer

in Piaget's theory lasts from about 2 to 6 years of age. During this stage, language development is rapid, but the child is unable to understand the mental operations of concrete logic.

question

primary sex characteristics

answer

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that enable reproduction.

question

puberty

answer

the early adolescent period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproduction.

question

rooting reflex

answer

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple.

question

schemas

answer

are mental concepts that organize and interpret information. They are found in Piaget's theory of cognitive development

question

secondary sex characteristics

answer

the nonreproductive sexual characteristics, for example,female breasts, male voice quality, and body hair.

question

self-concept

answer

a person's sense of identity and personal worth.

question

sensorimotor stage

answer

in Piaget's theory of cognitive stages, this stage lasts from birth to about age 2.During this stage, infants gain knowledge of the world through their senses and their motor activities.

question

social clock

answer

the cultural preferred timing of social event such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

question

stranger anxiety

answer

the fear of strangers that infants begin to display at about 8 months of age.

question

teratogens

answer

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

question

zygote

answer

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

question

developmental psychology

answer

the branch of psychology that studies the social and mental development of children

question

continuity/stages

answer

The three major issues that interest developmental psychologists are nature/nurture, stability/change, and __/ __.

question

embryo; fetus

answer

Body organs first begin to form and function during the period of the __ ; within 6 months, during the period of the __ , the organs are sufficiently functional to allow a chance of survival.

question

teratogens

answer

Chemicals that pass through the placenta's screen and may harm an embryo or fetus are called __ .

question

a reflex.

answer

Stroke a newborn's cheek and the infant will root for a nipple. This illustrates

question

frontal

answer

Between ages 3 and 6, the human brain experiences the greatest growth in the __ lobes, which we use for rational planning, and which continue developing at least into adolescence.

question

motor-skill development

answer

The sequence, but not the timing, is universal.

question

Why can't we consciously recall how we learned to walk when we were infants?

answer

We have no conscious memories of events occurring before about age 3½, in part because major brain areas have not yet matured.

question

explain why young children are not just miniature adults

answer

Infants in Piaget's sensorimotor stage tend to be focused only on their own perceptions of the world and may, for example, be unaware that objects continue to exist when unseen. A child in the preoperational stage is still egocentric and incapable of appreciating simple logic, such as the reversibility of operations. A preteen in the concrete operational stage is beginning to think logically about concrete events but not about abstract concepts.

question

many researchers believe

answer

Piaget's "stages" begin earlier and development is more continuous than he realized.

question

An 8-month-old infant who reacts to a new babysitter by crying and clinging to his father's shoulder is showing ___.

answer

Stanger anxiety

question

In a series of experiments, the Harlows found that monkeys raised with artificial mothers tended, when afraid, to cling to their cloth mother, rather than to a wire mother holding the feeding bottle. Why was this finding important?

answer

Before these studies, many psychologists believed that infants became attached to those who nourished them.

question

From the very first weeks of life, infants differ in their characteristic emotional reactions, with some infants being intense and anxious, while others are easygoing and relaxed. These differences are usually explained as differences in

answer

temperament

question

Adolescence is marked by the onset of

answer

puberty.

question

a person who can think logically about abstractions is in the

answer

formal operations stage

question

In Erikson's stages, the primary task during adolescence is

answer

forging an identity.

question

Some developmental psychologists now refer to the period that occurs in some Western cultures from age 18 to the mid-twenties and beyond (up to the time of social independence) as .

answer

emerging adulthood

question

Developmental researchers who emphasize learning and experience are supporting __ ; those who emphasize biological maturation are supporting __.

answer

continuity; stages

question

By age 65, a person would be most likely to experience a cognitive decline in the ability to

answer

recall and list all the important terms and concepts in a chapter.

question

How do cross-sectional and longitudinal studies differ?

answer

Cross-sectional studies compare people of different ages. Longitudinal studies restudy and retest the same people over a long period of time.

question

Freud defined the healthy adult as one who is able to love and work. Erikson agreed, observing that the adult struggles to attain intimacy and __ .

answer

generativity

question

Contrary to what many people assume,

answer

people of all ages report similar levels of happiness.

question

Although development is lifelong, there is stability of personality over time. For example,

answer

temperament tends to remain stable throughout life.

question

What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists?

answer

Developmental psychologists study physical, mental, and social changes throughout the life span. They focus on three issues: nature and nurture (the interaction between our genetic inheritance and our experiences); continuity and stages (whether development is gradual and continuous or a series of relatively abrupt changes); and stability and change (whether our traits endure or change as we age).

question

What is the course of prenatal development, and how do teratogens affect that development?

answer

The life cycle begins at conception, when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a zygote.The zygote's inner cells become the embryo,and the outer cells become the placenta. In the next 6 weeks, body organs begin to form and function, and by 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human. Teratogens are potentially harmful agents that can pass through the placental screen and harm the developing embryo or fetus, as happens with fetal alcohol syndrome.

question

What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants' mental abilities?

answer

Babies are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their survival and their social interactions with adults. For example, they quickly learn to discriminate their mother's smell and sound. Researchers use techniques that test habituation,such as the novelty-preference procedure, to explore infants' abilities.

question

During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?

answer

The brain's nerve cells are sculpted by heredity and experience. As a child's brain develops, neural connections grow more numerous and complex. Experiences then trigger a pruning process, in which unused connections weaken and heavily used ones strengthen. This process continues until puberty. Early childhood is an important period for shaping the brain, but our brain modifies itself in response to our learning throughout life. In childhood, complex motor skills—sitting, standing, walking— develop in a predictable sequence, though the timing of that sequence is a function of individual maturation and culture. We have no conscious memories of events occurring before about age 3½. This infantile amnesia occurs in part because major brain areas have not yet matured.

question

From the perspectives of Piaget, Vygotsky, and today's researchers, how does a child's mind develop?

answer

In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed that children actively construct and modify their understanding of the world through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.They form schemas that help them organize their experiences. Progressing from the simplicity of the sensorimotor stage of the first two years, in which they develop object permanence,children move to more complex ways of thinking. In the preoperational stage(about age 2 to about 6 ), they develop a theory of mind.(Children with autism have trouble understanding others' states of mind.) In the preoperational stage, children are egocentric and unable to perform simple logical operations. At about age 7, they enter the concrete operational stage and are able to comprehend the principle of conservation.By about age 12, children enter the formal operational stage and can reason systematically. Research supports the sequence Piaget proposed, but it also shows that young children are more capable, and their development more continuous, than he believed. Lev Vygotsky's studies of child development focused on the ways a child's mind grows by interacting with the social environment. In his view, parents and caretakers provide temporary scaffolds enabling children to step to higher levels of learning.

question

How do parent-infant attachment bonds form?

answer

At about 8 months, soon after object permanence develops, children separated from their caregivers display stranger anxiety.Infants form attachments not simply because parents gratify biological needs but, more important, because they are comfortable, familiar, and responsive. Ducks and other animals have a more rigid attachment process, called imprinting,that occurs during a critical period.

question

How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned?

answer

Attachment has been studied in strange situation experiments, which show that some children are securely attached and others are insecurely attached. Infants' differing attachment styles reflect both their individual temperament and the responsiveness of their parents and child-care providers. Adult relationships seem to reflect the attachment styles of early childhood, lending support to Erik Erikson's idea that basic trust is formed in infancy by our experiences with responsive caregivers.

question

How does childhood neglect or abuse affect children's attachments?

answer

Children are very resilient, but those who are severely neglected by their parents, or otherwise prevented from forming attachments at an early age, may be at risk for attachment problems.

question

How does day care affect children?

answer

Quality day care, with responsive adults interacting with children in a safe and stimulating environment, does not appear to harm children's thinking and language skills. Some studies have linked extensive time in day care with increased aggressiveness and defiance, but other factors—the child's temperament, the parents' sensitivity, and the family's economic and educational levels and culture—also matter.

question

What are three parenting styles, and how do children's traits relate to them?

answer

Parenting styles—authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative—reflect varying degrees of control. Children with high self-esteem tend to have authoritative parents and to be self-reliant and socially competent, but the direction of cause and effect in this relationship is not clear. Child-rearing practices reflect both individual and cultural values.

question

How is adolescence defined, and how do physical changes affect developing teens?

answer

Adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to social independence. Boys seem to benefit from "early" maturation, girls from "late" maturation. The brain's frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence and the early twenties, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning.

question

How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development?

answer

Piaget theorized that adolescents develop a capacity for formal operations and that this development is the foundation for moral judgment. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral reasoning, from a preconventional morality of self-interest, to a conventional morality concerned with upholding laws and social rules, to (in some people) a postconventional morality of universal ethical principles. Other researchers believe that morality lies in moral intuition and moral action as well as thinking. Some critics argue that Kohlberg's postconventional level represents morality from the perspective of individualist, middle-class people.

question

What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence?

answer

Erikson theorized that each life stage has its own psychosocial task, and that a chief task of adolescence is solidifying one's sense of self—one's identity.This often means "trying on" a number of different roles. Social identity is the part of the self-concept that comes from a person's group memberships.

question

How do parents and peers influence adolescents?

answer

During adolescence, parental influence diminishes and peer influence increases, in part because of the selection effect—the tendency to choose similar others. But adolescents also do adopt their peers' ways of dressing, acting, and communicating. Parents have more influence in religion, politics, and college and career choices.

question

What is emerging adulthood?

answer

The transition from adolescence to adulthood is now taking longer. Emerging adulthood is the period from age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many young people are not yet fully independent. But critics note that this stage is found mostly in today's Western cultures.

question

What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood?

answer

Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline in the late twenties and continue to decline throughout middle adulthood (roughly age 40 to 65) and late adulthood (the years after 65). Women's period of fertility ends with menopause around age 50; men have no similar age-related sharp drop in hormone levels or fertility. In late adulthood, the immune system weakens, increasing susceptibility to life-threatening illnesses. Chromosome tips (telomeres) wear down, reducing the chances of normal genetic replication. But for some, longevity-supporting genes, low stress, and good health habits enable better health in later life.

question

How does memory change with age?

answer

As the years pass, recall begins to decline, especially for meaningless information, but recognition memory remains strong. Developmental researchers study age-related changes (such as memory) with cross-sectional studies(comparing people of different ages) and longitudinal studies (retesting the same people over a period of years). "Terminal decline" describes the cognitive decline in the final few years of life.

question

What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death?

answer

Adults do not progress through an orderly sequence of age-related social stages. Chance events can determine life choices. The social clock is a culture's preferred timing for social events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. Adulthood's dominant themes are love and work, which Erikson called intimacy and generativity.

question

Do self-confidence and life satisfaction vary with life stages?

answer

Self-confidence tends to strengthen across the life span. Surveys show that life satisfaction is unrelated to age. Positive emotions increase after midlife and negative ones decrease.

question

A loved one's death triggers what range of reactions?

answer

People do not grieve in predictable stages, as was once supposed. Strong expressions of emotion do not purge grief, and bereavement therapy is not significantly more effective than grieving without such aid. Erikson viewed the late-adulthood psychosocial task as developing a sense of integrity (versus despair).

Myers Exploring Psychology Chapter 4 – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards