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talent, diversity, globalization, technology, ethics, and careers.

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Today's workplace requires:

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the total sum of a workforce's knowledge and ability that can be used for the organization;s benefit.

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intellectual capital

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Creating and maintaining a workforce that is represented by groups of people of different age groups, ethnicities, genders, races, religions, and sexual orientations.

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Workforce Diversity

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having preconceived unreasonable attitudes regarding members of certain demographic, population or group (race, gender or age)

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prejudice

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when members of a particular group are given substandard and unfair treatment in the organization

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Discrimination

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an unseen barrier that stops minority groups and women from attaining high positions or organizations, despite adequate experience and qualific

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glass ceiling effect

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the process by which different countries and regions have become interdependent in regard to resources, markets, and competition

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globalization

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a moral philosophy that differentiates between what is "right" and what is "wrong" in the actions of an organization or individual. Ethical issues include sound business practices, consumer safety, and environmental responsibility

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Ethics

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a person who can adapt to different jobs and careers due to possessing many different types of skills.

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portfolio worker

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an arrangement of workers who collaborate to accomplish a collective goal. Because people are working together in a constructive way, organizations are able to achieve what one person alone cannot. An organization can be a business or a nonprofit organization (charities, churches, government). The overarching goal is to provide valued services or products to its clients and consumers.

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organization

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Since an organization is a system that both responds to and has an effect on its environment

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open system

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the cost of the various inputs compared to the value of the outputs. Efficiency and effectiveness are the two main elements that productivity is composed of.

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productivity

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is a measure of input that describes how well resources were used in completing an objective. The most efficient production is accomplished at a minimum cost in materials and labor. Inefficiency leads to a loss in productivity

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Performance efficiency

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a measure of output in the form of a goal or objective accomplishment. For example, if you are working as a "sandwich artist" at a Subway shop on campus, performance effectiveness may mean that you meet a daily production target in terms of quantity and quality of sandwiches made.

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Performance effectiveness

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supervises employees and also acts as a driving force to direct and enhance the performance of other workers. An effective manager is one who is able to assist employees in attaining exceptional performance as well as job satisfaction

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manager (aka administrators in nonprofit or government organizations)

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A supervisor is on the front lines, in charge of managing employees who are not in managerial positions

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supervisor (lowest level management position)

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monitor and lead large divisions that are made up of numerous smaller business units. Examples include plant managers, general managers, and divisional managers

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Middle managers

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are in charge of leading and managing either the whole organization or a large part of it. Titles include president, vice president, and chief executive officer (CEO).

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Top managers

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oversee employees "on the front lines" who create the goods and/or services for the organization's customers. These managers interact with employees on a daily basis.

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Line managers

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support the line workers with certain technical skills. An example of a staff manager in a car production facility is the director of human resources

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Staff managers

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have expertise in a single area, such as production, accounting, human resources, sales, or marketing

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Functional managers

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have an area of responsibility that encompasses many of the above functional areas. The general manager of a furniture production plant would be in charge of production, accounting, sales, and inventory.

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General Managers

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Clients and customers, operating workers, mid-level managers and team leaders, top managers

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Up-side down pyramid

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planning, organizing, leading, controlling

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4 main functions of management:

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(in relation to management) is the psychological process of determining appropriate activities that achieve the objectives and goals of the organization

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planning

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comes after planning, and is the process of coordinating financial, physical, and human resources to accomplish the plan in place

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organizing

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motivating others to accomplish goals and objectives by fostering enthusiasm and dedication

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leading

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keeping track of performance and taking corrective action if the expected outcomes are not reached. This is an especially important function if an organization is in a constantly changing or unpredictable environment

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controlling

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leader, figurehead, liaison

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interpersonal roles:

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motivation others and giving them focus

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leader

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implementing new policies and acting them out as an example to subordinates

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figurehead

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acting as a "go-between" in groups and making sure activities are coordinated

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liaison

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disseminator, spokesperson, monitor

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Informational roles:

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passing information onto other

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disseminator

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being the official person to give out information

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spokesperson

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observing in order to find new information

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monitor

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resource allocator, disturbance handler, negotiator, entrepreneur

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decision roles

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deciding how much of the budget and other resources goes to each business unit, team, or project

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resource allocator

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helping to solve various problems, including clashes between individuals and groups

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disturbance handler

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cutting deals and making agreements with others both inside and outside of the work unit

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negotiator

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taking advantage of opportunities by putting forth new courses of action

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entrepreneur

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allows managers to prioritize goals, make action plans, and create timelines for completion

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agenda setting

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creates good relationships with many acquaintances and associates both inside and outside of the firm. These networks usually are mutually beneficial; both parties should be able to give support and help each other accomplish their respective objectives

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networking

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the ability to utilize one's network connections and relationships to accomplish goals.

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social capital

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an ability or proficiency that comes from one's knowledge or training. According to Harvard scholar Robert L. Katz, there are three main types of skills that effective managers should possess: technical skills, human skills, and conceptual skills.

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skill

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special knowledge or expertise that allows a person to operate in a specialized field. Examples of workers with technical skills are engineers, computer programmers, accountants, and financial advisors. Technical skills are very important when entering a career, but they become less and less important for an individual as she climbs into the higher ranks of management.

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technical skill

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include a person's social ability and the capacity to work well with others. Since management is a highly interpersonal profession, managers' interpersonal skills remain important throughout their careers. On a related note, high emotional intelligence is also beneficial to a manager

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human skills

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according to consultant Daniel Goleman, is the "ability to manage ourselves and our relationships effectively." Having high emotional intelligence allows managers not only to control their emotions, but to recognize when another person is getting emotional as well (and how to calm them down/solve the problem).

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emotional intelligence

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allow a manager to think about and analyze complex or abstract situations. These skills help a person see the interrelationships between different parts of an issue, as well as problem solve. Conceptual skills gain more and more significance the higher the management level.

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conceptual skills

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a type of organizational structure that has a specific hierarchy of authority, a well-defined division of labor, clear rules and procedures on behavior and performance, impersonal relationships, and career advancement based on merit. The concept of a bureaucracy was the brainchild of German scholar Max Weber, who created it as a way to form an organization that promotes legitimate authority based on an individual's qualifications and accomplishments, rather than on nepotism and personal ties

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bureaucracy

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each person's authority in the organization is clearly defined, and each worker reports to another person in a higher position of authority

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specific hierarchy of authority

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since positions are clearly defined, employees are able to develop specialized knowledge and job skills for their specific job

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Well-defined division of labor

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written policies and procedures tell the organization's members how to behave and make decisions in their jobs

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Clear rules and procedures on behavior

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no one in the organization receives special treatment; the rules and regulations are applicable to everyone in the organization

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Impersonal relationships

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employees are promoted because of their qualifications and performance; not because of personal relationships or family ties

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Career advancement is dependent on merit

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which breaks a task down into its fundamental activities. Once these essential activities are analyzed, it becomes possible to create optimal standard operating procedures for each job

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motion study

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foresight, command, organization, coordination, control

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administrative principles 5 main duties

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The "Hawthorne studies," led by Elton Mayo, were a series of research studies conducted in Western Electric Company's Chicago plant. In the studies, Mayo tried to test the effects of lighting and worker fatigue on productivity, but found that no matter which variable was changed, the production of the workers under scrutiny improved relative to their previous performance. The researchers concluded that because the group of workers being studied were given special attention, they improved their performance

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Hawthorne effect

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how individuals and groups act within organization. While many consider these studies poorly designed and criticize that the researchers drew over-generalized conclusions (that were supported by poor empirical evidence), the Hawthorne studies were important in helping start the field of organizational behavior

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organizational behavior

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of the 1950s and 1960s, which emphasized the importance of managers focusing on good human relations in order to increase worker output.

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human relations movement

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Mary Parker Follett emphasized that organizations are similar to communities throughout her work in the management field. Follett believed that there should be clear lines of communication between managers and their employees so that they could solve problems and reconcile differences. Follett's writings state that the best-case working environment is one that is not dominated by either the workers or the managers; this would allow them to work together much better. According to Follett, it is up to the manager to facilitate the cooperation of the organization's members, as well as find a way to intertwine the interests of the workers with interests of the organization.

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follett's organizations of communities

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assumes that the average person: -would rather follow than lead -does not like working -is lazy and unmotivated -is very irresponsible

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theory x

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assumes that the average person: -is creative -is willing to work, since it is a -natural human activity (like play or rest) -seeks responsibility -is self-directed

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theory y

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is when one person's expectations cause another person to act as originally expected.

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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inventory analysis, mathematical forecasting, queuing theory, network models

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quantitative analysis tools

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Keeps inventory costs as low as possible and prevents a company from being out of stock by using inventory data and computer modeling to predict when a company should order more supplies or products

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inventory analysis

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Helps predict things like future sales, availability of supplies, population growth, and future market size

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mathmatical forecasting

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Helps allocate employees and other resources when and where they are needed most

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queuing theory

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Allow a manager to take a task and reduce it to its fundamental activities, then organize said activities and formulate the most appropriate completion timeline for each activity

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network models

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believe that problems can be solved with the appropriate data and the correct mathematical models.

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operational research

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(a field of study that analyzes the way goods and services are rendered and attempts to improve the process) views an organization as a system

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operations managment

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(a set of smaller coordinated parts that work in tandem to produce a desired result)

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system

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The "smaller coordinated parts" of the system mentioned above that work together. For an organization to be truly effective, each subsystem must be functioning well and coordinating its efforts with the other subsystems.

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subsystem

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utilizing different management approaches when the situation calls for it. In management there is no "one size fits all" solution to every problem

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contingency thinking

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Using information to gain an edge over the competition by cultivating, refining, and sharing it

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knowledge management

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constantly improving and evolving since it changes operations and processes as a result of past experiences

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learning observation

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or EBM, uses actual scientific data and information on which approaches really work to make management decisions. Rather than blindly accepting common management platitudes or the current management trends, advocates of EBM require statistics, research studies, and other empirical evidence that backs up any proposed management advice. EBM uses a scientific method approach in order to get the most accurate results possible

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evidence based management

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comes from the latin word movere which means "to move"

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motivation

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the condition of need fulfillment. Process theories are distinct from need theories in that they define the terms of a rational cognitive process.

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satisfactin

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physiological, security, social, esteem, self-actualization

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needs theory 1- maslow on motivation:

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Before pursuing any other goals, people will be motivated to satisfy their need for things that they rely on for existence, like food and water to nourish themselves, sleep to maintain healthy physical and cognitive functions, essential medical care when injured

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1-physiological

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After you have physiological stability, Maslow says you begin to focus your attention on finding security (also sometimes called safety) in your environment

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2- security

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Once our physiological and security needs are met, we begin to look for ways to satisfy our appetite for social acceptance and affiliation with others

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3- social

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If we have satisfied these first three needs adequately (not completely or perfectly), then we tend to look for opportunities to satisfy our need for respect and recognition

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4-esteem

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This is the super-mega-high level of need. Maslow argued that in order to pursue self-actualization, a person must have satisfied the other four needs in the hierarchy

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self-actualization

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existence needs, relatedness needs, growth needs

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Needs theory 2- alderfer's take on motivation- ERG theory

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include all the basic physical and material needs that every person has. This is identical to Maslow's physiological and security needs combined. Interestingly, even Maslow considered these "lower-order needs," meaning that they are essential or basic to every person's existence

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existence needs

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include all needs to interact with others, positively or negatively. Interaction with others is how humans relate and the means by which we achieve social standing and esteem. Maslow would call these "mid-level needs" because they are less basic than the need to exist, but they do not represent the highest form of needs humans can aspire to

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relatedness needs

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are the highest form of needs for both Alderfer and Maslow (i.e., self-actualization). Some theories distinguish between external and internal esteem needs and consider the former to be a relatedness need and the latter a growth need

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growth needs

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can only be satisfied by relating to others; it requires the social approval of others

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external esteem

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is not dependent upon social approval, but is a function of how they feel about themselves and their accomplishments.

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internal esteem

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when a person experienced frustration while striving to achieve a higher-order need, they would "regress" or go backward to a lower-order need that was more concrete and/or measurable

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frustration regression principle

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nPow, nAff, nAch

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need 3- mcClelland's manifest needs

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fundamental to the competency of a leader at any level in the organization. It is easy to misinterpret this need as a need to dominate, or a dysfunctional desire to "have your way" at all times. This is, of course, true in some extreme cases. Most of us know someone who has such an extreme desire to harness power that they render themselves useless at work. Sometimes these extreme cases of power need have difficulty listening to the wise counsel of others

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nPow

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fundamental to communication effectiveness and social awareness. People who are high in affiliation need tend to seek out social interactions with others because they enjoy the communication experience, they value feedback from others, and they derive energy from the experience of engaging with others. Although effective communication is essential at all levels of the organization, these individuals are particularly competent at facilitating events, organizing work, monitoring progress on tasks, and similar activities

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nAff

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perhaps the most researched of McClelland's three needs. This is because it is so critically linked to work performance. A person who is high in need for achievement wants to take on tasks that are challenging. Interestingly, they are not attracted to the most challenging tasks. Rather, some researchers indicate that high nAch individuals seek out tasks that they perceive only half of people similar to them could complete

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nAch

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is most easily demonstrated by examining the simple formula Achievement Motivation = nAch - Fear of Failur

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achievment motivation

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effort > (expectancy) > performance > (instrumentality) > reward > (valance) > individual outcome EPR.IO

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expectancy theory

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the belief or confidence that a person's effort will lead to performance. If an employee does not believe that any level of effort will result in the desired level of performance, they will not be motivated by the task

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expectancy

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the belief that, if you do perform, your performance will be noted and rewarded

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instrumentality

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the degree to which the reward that you are given is valuable to you. In the language of our model, it is the extent to which your rewards satisfy the "individual outcome" that you value

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valance

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we need to first understand that humans are predisposed to a state of balance. This applies to many facts of life, and motivation is certainly no exception. At the very core of this balance is our perception that our work inputs (e.g., time, talent, effort, loyalty, tolerance, flexibility, integrity, commitment, reliability, heart and soul, and personal sacrifice) are rewarded with workplace outcomes (e.g., pay, bonuses, perks, benefits, security, recognition, opportunities for growth, reputation, praise, responsibility, and enjoyment).

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adam's equity theory- an old lesson from the vineyard

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Think of this as a balancing scale. When we perceive that we receive an overall value of outcomes equal to or greater than our inputs, we feel fortunate and satisfied with our work (the scale is tipped in our favor). But this delicate balance is deeply affected by our perceptions of others' ratio of inputs to outcomes. These others we compare ourselves to are called referents because we refer to them in making comparisons

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referents

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outcome/inputs

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self

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inputs/outcome

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referent

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exists when a person (A) perceives that they are receiving relatively fewer outcomes (rewards) for their given inputs (efforts) than the person they compare themselves to (B)

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negative inequity

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procedural justice, distributive justice, and interactional justice

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the caustic effects of unfairness

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involves a person's belief that the process of allocating rewards or punitive measures is jus

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procedural justice

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distinct from procedural justice in that it primarily focuses on the unfair distribution of resources

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distributive justice

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is a person's sense of fair treatment insofar as it involves the communication process

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interactional justice

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hygiene factors and motivation factors, extrinsic factors and intrinsic factors (three lessons)

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two-factor theory fredrich herzberg

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those things that tend to be extrinsic to the job. When these factors are low, employees tend to report that they are dissatisfied at work. This is because workers expect these factors to be adequately present in any job environment

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hygiene factors

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tend to be intrinsic in nature, and they have the potential to create satisfaction (motivation) in employees

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motivation factors

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company policies, supervision, relationship with boss, work conditions, salary, relationship with peers, security

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extrinsic factors

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achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth

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intrinsic factors

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The absence of hygiene factors leads to dissatisfaction, but an abundance of these factors does not create motivation (satisfaction).

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two factor theory lesson 1

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Intrinsic motivational factors lead to high levels of satisfaction (motivation)

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two factor theory lesson 2

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Even jobs with relatively high levels of motivation factors that have low hygiene factors will usually not produce an environment conducive to motivation. Hence, efforts to provide recognition, achievement, etc., may be useless if the environment does not contain the fundamental elements that workers expect (hygiene factors).

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two factor theory lesson 3

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exist because people receive a sense of intrinsic reward for doing something good for nothing. Their satisfaction from these tasks is high because the act is not expected or required of them, not in spite of this fact

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acts of citizenship

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(Deci, Koestner, and Ryan, 1999), is the phenomenon where a person experiences less motivation (because they experience less overall reward) to complete a task that is rewarded or officially sanctioned by the organization or a manager. It seems that some tasks are so highly intrinsically rewarding that offering extrinsic rewards (pay or "credit") for them actually has a net effect of lowering the satisfaction the person receives from the act when they voluntee

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cognitive evaluation theory

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In other words, extrinsic rewards can "crowd out" the existing intrinsic motivation a worker already experiences when they volunteer the service

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"crowd out"

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when one event (sight/sound/smell) automatically triggers a response in a person.

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conditioned response

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(also called instrumental conditioning or instrumental learning) is learning associations between behaviors and consequences. It is based on the law of effect.

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operant conditioning

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states that behaviors that are rewarded will tend to be repeated, while behaviors that are not rewarded will not. B.F. Skinner's work at Harvard during his graduate studies and later at the University of Minnesota at Minneapolis was groundbreaking

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Thorndike's law of effect

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He conducted experiments with lab rats in a specially devised box (later dubbed the "Skinner box") where the animal was automatically rewarded with a food pellet every time it pressed on a lever device. He also taught birds elaborate behaviors by rewarding them for incremental (gradual) desirable changes in behavior.

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shaping behavior

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response: desired response leads to (consequence: positive consequence) of the 5 tactics, positive reinforcement produced the greatest frequency of desired responses. However, the effectiveness of positive consequences on behavior depends on four factors: satiation/deprivation, immediacy, contingency, and size.

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tactic: positive reinforcement

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response: desired response leads to ( consequence: removal or undesirable consequence)

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tactic: negative reinforcement

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response: desired response leads to (consequence: avoidable of undesirable condition consequences)

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tactic: aviodance (or escape)

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response: undesirable response leads to (consequence: ignoring behavior)

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tactic: extinction

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response: undesirable response leads to (consequence: undesirable consequence)

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tactic: punishment

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when the desirability of a consequence (reward) diminishes over time because the person has a lesser desire for that particular reward. This is the same concept as satiation, discussed above. Before saturation occurs, a manager should consider changing the reinforcement schedule from a fixed schedule to one of several other viable options (i.e., fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, or variable ratio)

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saturation

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Lock and Latham were among the first to develop goal setting theory, which laid the foundation for the most popular performance management system in the history of American management practice—management by objectives (MBO). Among their contributions to the field of goal setting, they identify four key reasons why goals are important to organizations.

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goal setting and management by objectives- the most popular motivation programs

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Goals focus the attention of an individual toward goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities

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goal 1 for lock and latham

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Goals are energizing for workers and higher goals induce greater effort than lower goals.

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goal 2 for lock and latham

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Goals encourage key and relevant learning outcomes necessary for success.

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goal 3 for lock and latham

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Goals stimulate strategic thinking as a means of coping with complex environments.

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goal 4 for lock and latham

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a program of goal setting first popularized by Peter Drucker in his 1954 book, The Practice of Management. MBO prescribes that the most effective goals are characterized by the following eight conditions: challenging, attainable, specific, reward contingent, measurable, feedback richness, joint set, time bound, morally worthy,

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MBO

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Easy goals are not motivational because achieving them does not feel like an accomplishment that one can be proud of. In addition, they do not encourage further efforts to exceed the performance challenge once it is met.

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challenging

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Goals that are perceived as unattainable will have low expectancy. You may recall from our discussion of expectancy theory that the link between effort and performance is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for motivation. Hence, good goals are perceived as attainable through effort.

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specific

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Goals are motivating to the extent that achieving them results in a reward. Employees need assurances that rewards are contingent upon goal attainment. If you recall from expectancy theory, this is the performance-reward link called instrumentality and it is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for motivation.

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reward contingent

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Goals must be measurable in some tangible way. Sales quotas, production quality rates, and the like are good examples of measurable goals. But all too often, a manager's tendency is to establish themselves as the ultimate judge of goal attainment. The problem with this is that the individual striving to achieve the goal can never really know if they have achieved it until the supervisor "rules." Wise managers are able to establish unequivocally quantifiable measures that leave no uncertainty about goal achievement.

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measurable

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The best goals are those that allow workers to monitor their progress as they work on task completion. For salespeople, it is better to be able to measure sales levels daily (or immediately) rather than at the end of some longer period of time. This is because seeing incremental success is motivational for people as they monitor their progress toward the ultimate goal for a performance period.

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feedback richness

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Although it is the manager's ultimate responsibility to ensure that the employee's goals are aligned with important organizational goals, it is equally important that these goals are established with the input of the employee charged with their completion. Participating in the establishment of goals 1) allows employees to better understand how their goals are important to the success of the broader organization's goals and 2) encourages "buy-in" from employees because it enables them to agree to the goals (or "own" the goals they help to establish).

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joint set

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Most good goals have a start time and an end time. This is often critical for employee motivation because it allows them to evaluate the pace at which they must work to achieve the goal by a specific end date. However, one can imagine circumstances when an end time is not necessary. If there is uncertainty regarding how long a given task will take, it may make more sense to agree that the contingent reward will be provided once a set of criteria are met

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time bound

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For something to be morally worthy of our time means that it has real and meaningful value. If you have ever been asked to complete a task that seemed like "busywork," then you know what not morally worthy feels like. People need to feel that their work is significant and has a real impact on the performance of the organization. A good manager takes responsibility for conveying the worthiness of a job by defining it in meaningful terms. I could not stay motivated as a professor if I defined my job as an information disseminator. Instead, I define myself as a "life changer." This motivates me to reach into the deepest parts of myself in search of new and better ways to do my work.

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morally worthy

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(skill variety + task identity + task significance)/ 3 x (autonomy) x (feedback)

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MPS =

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the number of different activities performed by an employee.

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skill variety

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the extent to which the employee's work can be identified as a "meaningful whole" with a beginning and an end

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task identity

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is the degree to which an employee can perceive the impact of his/her work on the final product, other employees, or the work environment. Together, these three factors contribute to the meaningfulness of work

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task significance

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refers to the level of control an employee has over deciding how and when work is completed. This contributes to experiencing responsibility for work outcomes

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autonomy

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from the job is information regarding performance. Rich and timely feedback is important, as it results in knowledge of the work outcomes. Without rich feedback, a worker is unable to take timely corrective actions that can benefit the organization most

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feedback

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to assess the motivation quality of jobs.

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Motivation potential scores (MPS)

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At any given moment we are surrounded by countless environmental stimuli. We are not aware of most of these stimuli, either because we have learned to ignore them, or because our sense organs—sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing—are not capable of receiving them. Environmental stimuli can only produce sensations in the human body if the body has developed the sensing mechanism to receive them.

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Sensation

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Part of the perceptual process in which we acknowledge the reception of sensations from the environment. The major characteristics involved in attending to physical stimuli include size, intensity, frequency, contrast, motion, change, and novelty.

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Attention

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The larger the size of a physical object, the more likely it is to be perceived.

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1-size

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The greater the intensity of a stimulus, the more likely it is to be noticed. A loud noise, such as shouting, is more likely to get attention than a quiet voice.

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2-Intensity

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The greater the frequency with which a stimulus is presented, the greater are the chances you will attend to it. This principle of repetition is used extensively in advertising to attract the attention of buyers.

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3-Frequency

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Stimuli that contrast with the surrounding environment are more likely to be selected for attention than stimuli that blend with the environment. The contrast can be created by color, size, or any other factor that distinguishes one stimulus from others

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4-Contrast

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Since movement tends to attract attention, a moving stimulus is more likely to be perceived than a stationary object. An animated sign, for example, attracts more attention than a fixed billboard. An object with blinking lights, such as a Christmas tree or sign, attracts more attention than one without blinking lights

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5-Motion

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A stimulus that is new and unique will often be perceived more readily than familiar stimuli. Advertisers use the impact of novelty by creating original packaging or advertising messages.

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6-Novelty

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involves organizing and interpreting the sensations we attend to. Visual images, sounds, odors, and other sensations do not simply enter our consciousness as pure, unpolluted sensations. As we attend to them, we consciously try to organize or categorize the sensations into a meaningful perception that somehow makes sense to us.

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Perception

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The process of extrapolating from a small amount of information to form a complete perception about an object or event. Often we are required to act on only limited pieces of information from which we infer what more information might tell us.

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Perceptual inferences

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The process of organizing our perceptions into recognizable patterns. Four of the principles we use to assist in this effort include figure-ground separation, similarity, proximity, and closure.

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Perceptual organization

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People tend to perceive objects that stand against a background. In a committee meeting, for example, most people see the verbal conversation as figure, and fail to attend to the background of nonverbal messages that may be far more meaningful in understanding the group processes

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1- figure ground

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Stimuli that have common physical traits are more likely to be grouped together than those that do not. Athletic teams wear uniforms to help players recognize their teammates. Some companies that have open floor plans color-code partitions and other furniture to visually define separate functions and responsibilities, such as General Mills, which uses different color schemes to separate the various departments at its headquarters. Because of the principle of similarity, the management style of top managers sets the stage for how the feedback and instructions of middle managers will be perceived by their subordinates.

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Similarity

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Stimuli that occur in the same proximity, either in space or in time, are often associated. For example, if you see two people together frequently, you will tend to attribute the characteristics you learn about one individual to the other, until your perceptions become more accurate. An illustration of proximity in time occurs when the boxes in the hall are removed on the same day that you complain about them. You may assume that your complaints led to their removal, without realizing that it would have occurred anyway.

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proximity

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Since most of the stimuli we perceive are incomplete, we naturally tend to extrapolate information and project additional information to form a complete picture. For example, a pole placed in front of a stop sign may prevent us from seeing the entire eight-sided figure. But since we have seen many stop signs before, the principle of closure causes us to "see" the complete sign. If we watch an employee work for fifteen minutes and complete the first half of a task, and return twenty minutes later to find the task completed, we attribute the entire task to the employee because of the principle of closure. However, we only saw this person perform half the task, and so our inference about the last half may be incorrect.

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closure

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The degree to which individuals have developed complex categories for organizing information.

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cognitive complexity

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refers to the tendency to allow one personality trait to influence our perceptions of other traits. refers to the tendency to allow one personality trait to influence our perceptions of other traits. One potentially serious application of the halo effect is when it occurs in a performance evaluation. If one particular attribute, positive or negative, colors a supervisor's perception of other unrelated attributes, the performance evaluation process can be extremely unfair and misleading.

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Halo effect

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A source of perceptual errors caused by people choosing to perceive only the information that they find acceptable.

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selected perception

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Occasionally we face stimuli that are so threatening or embarrassing that we refuse to perceive them

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perceptual defense

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The process of allowing our personal stereotypes and expectations regarding certain kinds of people to create a perceptual set that influences how we respond to other people.

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implicit personality theories

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a form of perceptual bias in which we project our own personal feelings and attitudes onto others as a means of helping us interpret their attitudes and feelings.

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projection

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The tendency for first impressions and early information to unduly influence our evaluations and judgment.

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primacy effect

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The process of using a few attributes about an object to classify it and then responding to it as a member of a category rather than as a unique object.

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stereotyping

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The self-fulfilling prophecy explains how the expectations in the mind of one person about how others should behave are communicated in a variety of ways, until these individuals actually behave in the way expected. However, the self-fulfilling prophecy involves more than just one person having strong expectancies that influence the behavior of others.

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self- fulfilling prophecy (aka pygmalion effect

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behavior has traditionally been explained as the combination of personality and environmental forces.

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behavior (b = fn)

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The tendency to overestimate the influence of personality factors when interpreting the actions of people.

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Fundamental attribution error

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A theory that explains how we assign responsibility for behavior either to personality characteristics or environmental circumstances.

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attribution theory

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conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stability, openness to experience, extroversion/introversion

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Big five personality model

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degree to which an individual is dependable or inconsistent, can be counted on or is unreliable, follows through on commitments or reneges, and keeps promises or breaks them. Those who rate high on conscientiousness are generally perceived to be careful, thorough, organized, persistent, achievement oriented, hardworking, and persevering. Those who score lower on this dimension are more likely to be viewed as inattentive to detail, uncaring, disrespectful, not interested or motivated, unorganized, apt to give up easily, and lazy.

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Conscientiousness

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measures the degree to which people are friendly or reserved, cooperative or guarded, flexible or inflexible, trusting or cautious, good-natured or moody, soft-hearted or tough, and tolerant or judgmental. Those scoring high on the first element of these paired traits are viewed as agreeable and easy to work with, while those rating low are viewed as more disagreeable and difficult to work with. Being too agreeable could cause people to be too accommodating, however, and others may take advantage of this weakness.

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Agreeableness

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(versus Neuroticism) characterizes the degree to which people are consistent or inconsistent in how they react to certain events, they react impulsively or weigh their options before acting, and they take things personally or look at the situation objectively. Those who rate high on emotional stability are viewed as generally poised, calm, able to manage their anger, secure, happy, and objective. Those who rate low are more likely to be anxious, depressed, angry, insecure, worried, and emotional.

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Emotional stability

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characterizes the degree to which people are interested in broadening their horizons or limiting them, learning new things or sticking with what they already know, meeting new people or associating with current friends and co-workers, going to new places or restricting themselves to known places. Individuals who score high on this factor tend to be highly intellectual, broad-minded, curious, imaginative, and cultured. Those who rate lower tend to be more narrow-minded, less interested in the outside world, and uncomfortable in unfamiliar surroundings and situations. Professionals who are open to experience are more willing to contemplate on feedback for personal development.

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openness to experience

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represents the degree to which people are outgoing, social, assertive, active, and talkative

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extroversion

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refers to those who are shy, antisocial, passive, and quiet. Extroversion or introversion, in itself, is not necessarily bad, but extremes at both ends of the spectrum can be equally dysfunctional. A person who is too outgoing could be perceived as overbearing, and a person who is too reserved would lack the skills to relate to others.

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introversion

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refers to the degree to which individuals believe that their actions influence the rewards they receive in life.

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locus of control

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believe that the rewards they receive are internally controlled by their own actions,

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internal locus of control

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believe external forces such as luck, chance, or fate control their lives and determine their rewards and punishments

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external locus of control

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The most influential stimulus contributing to the development of self-efficacy is enactive mastery, which refers to the repeated performance or practicing of the task. For example, a nurse who has inserted many IV needles should have high self-efficacy in being able to do it again

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Enactive mastery

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Observing the behavior of others (modeling) can be almost as effective as enactive mastery, especially when the person and the model are similar in terms of age, capability, and other characteristics, and when the model's behavior is clearly visible.

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Vicarious experience:

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In the development of self-efficacy, verbal persuasion is less effective than practicing or modeling; nevertheless, it can be an important source of efficacy information, especially if the source has high credibility and expertise, and if there are multiple sources who agree.

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Verbal persuasion

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Efficacy perceptions are influenced by momentary levels of arousal as illustrated by these statements of athletes: "We were ready for them," "They were really up for this game," "I was mentally prepared," and "He was really psyched for this match."

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Perceptions of one's physiological state:

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consists of the beliefs and information a person possesses about the attitude object. This information includes descriptive data such as facts, figures, and other specific knowledge.

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cognitive component

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