LIfespan – Flashcard
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cognitive theory
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working model
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6 months
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infant begins to express anger
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crying and contentment
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first emotional expressions to emerge at birth
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Proximal parenting
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close physical contact with a child
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distal parenting
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involves engaging the child more intellectually
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anus
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According to Freud, the primary source of gratification during the second year of life
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self-recognition
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Pretending and using the words "I," "me," "mine," and "myself" - evidence child has developed self-recognition
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trust versus mistrust
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Erikson's first crisis of life
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Separation anxiety
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normal at age 1 but not after age 3 infant's distress when a caregiver leaves intensifies by age 2 usually subsides by age 3.
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self-awareness
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infant's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose actions are separate from those of other people
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psychoanalytic
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theory that emphasizes the need for responsive maternal care and connects biosocial with psychosocial development
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goodness of fit
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temperamental adjustment that allows smooth infant-caregiver interaction
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synchrony
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mutually coordinated, rapid, smooth interaction between a caregiver and an infant
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When a toddler begins to walk and talk, the social bond with the caregiver changes from synchrony to
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attachment
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Albert crawls after his father when his father leaves the room. In doing so, Albert is exhibiting:
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proximity-seeking behavior
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Although cultural differences exist, most infants worldwide develop special attachments to their caregivers. This discovery is attributed to:
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Mary Ainsworth
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insecure-resistant/ambivalent
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attachment pattern involves an infant who both resists and seeks contact when reunited with his or her caregiver
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highly stressed parents
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predict insecure attachment
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fathers encourage infants to explore
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mothers tend to be more cautious.
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family day care
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nonrelative child care in a home
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psychosocial development is determined by
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genes, maturation, culture.
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The case study of Jacob is an example of the importance of paying attention to deficits in a child's
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psychosocial growth.
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low turnover rate
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High-quality day care during infancy
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.A determining factor in a father's level of involvement with his children
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his relationship with their mother.
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One of the most influential factors that determine a child's type of attachment is the
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responsiveness of the parents.
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key aspects of the Strange Situation
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exploration of toys
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insecure-resistant/ambivalent
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attachment pattern involves an infant who both resists and seeks contact when reunited with his or her caregiver
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secure attachment
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infant is comfortable and confident in the presence of his or her caregivers
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the still-face technique
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experimental practice in which adults stare at their baby and remain expressionless
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Research indicates that toddlers with proximal mothers were more compliant
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but less self-aware
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When temperament is described as being "constitutionally based," this means that traits
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originate with one's genes.
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key concept of an ethnotheory
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a culture's underlying values and practices are usually not apparent to the people of that culture
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autonomy versus shame and doubt
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Erikson's second crisis of life?
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Freud
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would trace a person's excessive eating, drinking, or talking to how that person's mother handled his or her urge to suck during infancy
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psychoanalytic
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theory that emphasizes the need for responsive maternal care and connects biosocial with psychosocial development
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synesthesia
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relationship between brain maturation and the ability to express each emotion and sensation in an appropriate way
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self-awareness
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infant's realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose actions are separate from those of other people
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separation anxiety
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infant's distress when his or her caregiver leaves
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stranger wariness
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When an infant is fearful of strangers
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about 6 weeks of age
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An infant's smile upon seeing a person's face normally emerges
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When many ethnic groups live together in a nation with abundant food and adequate medical care, children of what descent are tallest?
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African
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"just-right" phenomenon
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young children's insistence on routine
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motor skills
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Environmental hazards such as pollution interfere with the development
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corpus callosum
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allows communication between the two hemispheres of the brain
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prefrontal cortex
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"executive" of the brain
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limbic system
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expression and regulation of emotions
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Hippocampus
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central processor of memory
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egocentrism
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Piagetian term literally means "self-centered"
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focus on appearance
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characteristic of preoperational thought involves a child ignoring all attributes that are not apparent
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After noticing that her 4-year-old brother was having difficulty putting a jigsaw puzzle together, Rose helped him with the task by praising his successes and helping him to recognize progress. From Vygotsky's perspective, this as an example of:
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guided participation
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zone of proximal development.
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Vygotsky's term for the skills that a person can experience only with assistance, not yet independently
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social mediation
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function of speech occurs during both formal instruction and casual conversation
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Theory of mind
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typically appears rather suddenly
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fast-mapping
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process by which children develop an interconnected set of categories for words
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overregularization
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tendency of a young child to apply rules of grammar when he or she should not
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Child-centered programs recognize that children learn through play with other children. This is most consistent with the views of:
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Vygotsky.
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Programs vary in length, curriculum, and goals
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complications in the evaluation of Head Start programs
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experts prefer the term "injury control" to the term "accident prevention
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use of the term "accident" suggests that no one is at fault and that certain events are inevitable.
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child abuse or maltreatment is
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usually perpetrated by the child's parents or immediate relatives.
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example of tertiary prevention of child maltreatment
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removing an abused child from the home
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Hispanic
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highest childhood obesity rate
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"just-right" phenomenon.
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When a young child insists that his or her potatoes be placed on a certain part of the dinner plate
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Exposure to high levels of lead does not cause
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reduced motor skills.
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lateralization
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specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain
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egocentrism
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3-year-old who gives his mother a toy car for HER birthday and expects that she will love it
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static reasoning
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characteristic of preoperational thought involves a child assuming that the world is unchanging, always in the state in which the child currently encounters it
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Vygotsky emphasized
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the ability to learn as a measure of intelligence
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Scaffolding
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Vygotsky term refers to temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and is aimed at helping him or her master a new skill
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when teachers explain things
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example of the social mediation function of speech
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theory of mind
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understanding that other people can have thoughts and ideas unlike one's own
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fast-mapping
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Jessica's husband works on car engines as a hobby. Jessica often fails to figure out exactly what a particular part is, but she gets the general idea of what it does and places it in an appropriate mental category.
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Overregularization demonstrates a child's understanding of
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grammar
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Montessori schools emphasize
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individual pride and accomplishment.
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key finding from research on early-childhood education programs is
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quality matters most.
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fences surrounding the pool
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makes pools safer
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child abuse
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Deliberate action that is harmful to a child's physical, emotional, or sexual well-being
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A goal of permanency planning in cases of substantiated child maltreatment
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find a long-term living situation
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emotional regulation
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children who master this have learned when and how to express emotions.
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confidence and independence.
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Erikson noted that as self-esteem builds, children generally display
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protective optimism
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Naive Predictions. Preschoolers predict that they can solve impossible puzzles or control their dreams.
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Guilt
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self-blame that people experience when they do something wrong.
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intrinsic motivation
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A musician who plays for the delight of making music
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psychopathology
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An illness or disorder of the mind
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At night, Brooks, age 4, is afraid of the sound of the train whistle and of going to bed without a light on. His excessive fears are an expression of:
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immature development of his prefrontal cortex.
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externalizing problems
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When a person expresses powerful feelings through uncontrolled physical or verbal outbursts
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attacking other people
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An example of an externalizing problem
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being withdrawn
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an example of an internalizing problem
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Peers provide practice in
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emotional regulation, empathy, social understanding
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parallel play
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Children play with similar toys, but not together.
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Baumrind.
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traced the effects of parenting on child development, and whose findings continue to be very influential
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Authoritarian
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parenting style in which parents are more likely to use physical punishment
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3 to 5 hours
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young children of every ethnic and economic group spend this many hours a day exposed to electronic media.
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Empathy
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true understanding of the feelings and concerns of another person
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antisocial behavior
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Johnny, age 6, suddenly makes an angry face at Alan and kicks him hard for no apparent reason.
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relational aggression
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type of aggression is characterized by insults or social rejection aimed at harming the victim's friendships
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ultimate goal of discipline
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teach the child the standards of behavior within his or her culture.
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children who are physically punished
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are more likely to become bullies, delinquents, and then abusive adults.
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By age 8
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Children have a firm understanding of biological differences between males and females
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emotional regulation
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ability to control when and how emotions are expressed
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initiative versus guilt
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Erik Erikson's third developmental stage—the stage during which self-esteem emerges
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pride
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emotion that is the foundation for practice and mastery of new skills.
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intrinsic motivation
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A drive that comes from inside a person
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In an experiment by Lepper and colleagues (1973), children who received an expected award for drawing
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were less likely to draw
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people in the United States, one of the most important goals for emotional regulation is
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overcoming fear
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Girls whose behavior problems got worse over the first years of primary school were more likely to engage in
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reparative behavior than boys were
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neurological and hormonal effects may make boys more vulnerable to
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externalizing problems
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girls are more vulnerable to
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internalizing problems
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ecological context
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or physical setting, is one aspect of culture that shapes play
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Solitary
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type of play appears first in Parten's progression of social play
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expressions of warmth
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researcher Diana Baumrind found that parents differ in four important dimensions of rearing children. One of those dimensions is:
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permissive
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Parents who have low expectations for maturity and rarely discipline their children are characterized by Baumrind
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25 %
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of 3-year-olds have a television in their bedroom
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A parent might ask a child, "How would you feel if someone did that to you?" to:
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encourage empathy.
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prosocial
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Feelings and actions that are helpful and kind without a personal motive
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Bullying
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kind of aggression is unprovoked and involves repeated physical or verbal attacks
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In relating discipline to a young child's developmental characteristics, it is important to remember that
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children are actively forming the theory of mind and self-concepts necessary for empathy and prosocial behaviors.
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Physical punishment increases both
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the possibility of aggression and temporarily obedience.
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sex differences
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Biological differences between males and females
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industry versus inferiority
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Erikson's fourth stage of psychosocial development
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200 children who were lifted out of poverty showed
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lower impulsive aggression
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parental conflict can lead to internalizing behavior when
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child experiences self-blame
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learn how to get along with peers.
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one of the most important tasks of a middle-school child
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they may spout curses, accents, and slang.
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A characteristic of the culture of children
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some children are well liked, others aren't, and those in both groups change over time.
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social acceptance among children indicates
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social cognition
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ability to understand human interactions
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Rita, who is unpopular among her peers, frequently ridicules and antagonizes other children. Her behavior suggests that she is an
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aggressive-rejected child.
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bullying
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Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person
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peers, parents, and culture
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Research has shown that children develop their own standards of right and wrong, guided by
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Kohlberg
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theorist associated with the six stages of moral reasoning
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inferior.
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According to Erikson, if 8-year-old Kristina does NOT solve her psychosocial conflict of stage four, she will come to view herself as: inferior.
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middle childhood
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Civic sense and virtue begins
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latency
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Freud referred to middle childhood
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social comparison.
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tendency to assess one's own abilities by measuring them against those of other people, especially peers
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resilience
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capacity to develop optimally by adapting positively to significant adversity
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family function
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way in which a family works to meet the needs of its members
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nuclear
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most common type of family structure for U.S. children aged 6-11
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low income and low stability
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two factors that significantly interfere with family function in every nation
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dysfunctional
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family that does not support all its members
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children attempt to master many skills.
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During Erikson's crisis of industry versus inferiority
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have lower school achievement
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Children in U.S. military families move often
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Ten-year-old Julian's parents frequently yell and argue. He will more likely:
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feel lonely if he blames himself for his parents' fights.
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The difference in the psychosocial development of young children as compared to that of middle-school children is that:
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young children's egocentrism makes them less affected by other children's acceptance or rejection of them.
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gender stereotypes and gender segregation are strongly maintained.
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interesting aspect of the culture of children
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kind and cooperative
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the most popular young children
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Social cognition
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ability to understand social interactions
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withdrawn-rejected
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child who is rejected by peers because of timid and anxious behavior
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repeated, systematic attacks intended to harm a weaker person
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Characteristics of bullying
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children are more likely to behave prosocially
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in middle school than earlier
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Kohlberg would expect a child whose thought processes are egocentric to display moral reasoning:
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with a punishment and obedience orientation
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Marisol can't wait to begin her first karate class
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Erikson's fourth stage, the crisis of industry versus inferiority
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Civic sense is influenced most by the examples of:
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parents.
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During the latency stage,
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Freud believed that children's emotional drives and psychosocial needs are quiet.
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School-age children tend to be aware of their classmates' opinions, judgments, and accomplishments. This development enables school-age children to engage in
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social comparison.
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Resilience is
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dynamic.
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most important overall family function is to provide: .
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love and encouragement.
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nuclear family
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A family that consists of a father, a mother, and their biological children younger than age 18
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Hispanic fathers
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if divorce occurs, who is LEAST likely to stay actively involved with their children
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family-stress model
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examines crucial questions about the effect of risk factors (poverty, divorce, job loss) on the family
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age 2 through 6
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children add almost 10 inches in height and gain about 15 pounds in weight.
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Tooth decay
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most common disease of young children in developed nations, affects more than one-third of all children under age 6 in the United States
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just-right" phenomenon
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pathological in adults but is normal in children under age 6. over 75 percent of the 3-year-olds (the peak age) evidenced some just-right tendency
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Examples of "Just Right" 3 yr olds:
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Preferred to have things done in a particular order or in a certain way Had a strong preference to wear (or not wear) certain clothes Prepared for bedtime by engaging in a special activity, routine, or ritual Had strong preferences for certain foods
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motor skills
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developed by play
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From ages 2 to 6, maturation of the prefrontal cortex has several notable benefits:
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Sleep becomes more regular. Emotions become more nuanced and responsive. Temper tantrums subside.
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perseveration
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some children persevere in, or stick to, one thought or action, unable to quit.
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Lateralization-
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Literally, sidedness, referring to the specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity.
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A gradual increase in myelination
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makes 5-year-olds much quicker than 3-year-olds, who themselves are quicker than toddlers.
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myelination
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primary reason for faster thinking
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Maturation of the prefrontal cortex gradually enables children to focus attention and curb impulsiveness
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Before such maturation, many young children jump from task to task; they cannot stay quiet
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Piaget:
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Preoperational Thought Preoperational means "before (pre) logical operations (reasoning processes)." The child's verbal ability permits symbolic thinking. Language frees the child from the limits of sensorimotor experience
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Centration (Piaget)
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A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others.
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Egocentrism (Piaget)
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Piaget's term for young children's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective
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Focus on appearance (Piaget) -
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A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent.
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Static reasoning (Piaget)
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A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be.
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Irreversibility (Piaget)
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A characteristic of preoperational thought whereby a young child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred.
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Conservation (Piaget)
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The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) when its appearance changes.
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Animism (Piaget)
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belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive.
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Vygotsky: Social Learning
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Every aspect of children's cognitive development is embedded in the social context
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Apprentice in thinking-
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Vygotsky's term for a person whose cognition is stimulated and directed by older and more skilled members of society.
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Zone of proximal development (ZPD)-
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Vygotsky's term for the skills—cognitive as well as physical—that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently.
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Scaffolding
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Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process
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Private speech-
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The internal dialogue that occurs when people talk to themselves (either silently or out loud).
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Social mediation-
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Human interaction that expands and advances understanding, often through words that one person uses to explain something to another
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Theory-theory
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idea that children attempt to explain everything they see and hear.
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Theory of mind-
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person's theory of what other people might be thinking. children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are. seldom achieved before age 4.
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sensitive period
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best time to master vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
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age 2
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average child knows about 500 words
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age 6
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average child knows more than 10,000 words
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naming explosion
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a sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age
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Fast-mapping
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speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning
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Basic Grammar
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grammar of a language includes the structures, techniques, and rules that communicate meaning
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Overregularization
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application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, making the language seem more "regular" than it actually is.
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Reggio Emilia approach-
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famous program of early-childhood education that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy; it encourages each child's creativity in a carefully designed setting.
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Montessori schools
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emphasize individual pride and accomplishment, presenting literacy-related tasks (such as outlining letters and looking at books).
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Child-Centered Programs
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Stress children's natural inclination to learn through play Encourage self-paced exploration and artistic expression. Show the influence of Vygotsky, who thought that children learn through play with other children and through cultural practices that structure life.
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Teacher-Directed Programs
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Stress academic subjects taught by a teacher to entire class. Children learn letters, numbers, shapes, & colors Learn how to listen to the teacher and sit quietly. Make a clear distinction between work & play. Much less expensive
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Project Head Start-
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most widespread early-childhood education program in the United States, At first, the program was thought to be highly successful at raising children's intelligence; ten years later, early gains were said to fade.
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Accidents
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leading cause of death worldwide for people under age 40
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Among 2- to 6-year-olds
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four times more children die in accidents than die of cancer
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Injury control/harm reduction-
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Practices that are aimed anticipating, controlling, and preventing dangerous activities.
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Primary prevention-
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Actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted event or circumstance, such as injury, disease, or abuse.
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Secondary prevention-
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Actions that avert harm in a high-risk situation, such as stopping a car before it hits a pedestrian or installing traffic lights at dangerous intersections.
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Tertiary prevention-
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Actions, such as immediate and effective medical treatment, that are taken after an adverse event (such as illness, injury, or abuse) occurs and that are aimed at reducing the harm or preventing disability.
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Child maltreatment
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Intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age.
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Child abuse
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Deliberate action that is harmful to a child's physical, emotional, or sexual well-being.
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Child neglect
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Failure to meet a child's basic physical, educational, or emotional needs.
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Consequences of Maltreatment
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maltreated children consider other people to be hostile and exploitative. That belief makes them fearful, aggressive, and lonely.
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Primary prevention
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includes any measure that reduces financial stress, family isolation, and unwanted parenthood.
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Secondary prevention
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home visits by nurses, high-quality day care, and preventive social work—all designed to help high-risk families.
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Tertiary prevention
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reduces harm when maltreatment has already occurred. Requires permanency planning, an effort to find a long-term solution to the problem.
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Foster care-
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legal, publicly supported system in which a maltreated child is removed from the parents' custody and entrusted to another adult or family, which is reimbursed for expenses incurred in meeting the child's needs.
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Kinship care-
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A form of foster care in which a relative of a maltreated child, usually a grand -parent, becomes the approved caregiver.
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Emotional Regulation
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ability to control when and how emotions are expressed
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Initiative versus guilt
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Erikson's third psychosocial crisis, in which children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them.
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Self-esteem:
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person's evaluation of his or her own worth, either in specifics (e.g., intelligence, attractiveness) or in general.
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Self-concept:
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person's understanding of who he or she is, incorporating self-esteem, physical appearance, personality, and various personal traits (e.g. gender, size).
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Protective Optimism:
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Preschoolers predict that they can solve impossible puzzles, remember long lists of words, and control their dreams. Helps them try new things
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Guilt:
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Self-blame that people experience when they do something wrong
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Shame:
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People's feeling that others blame them, disapprove of them, or are disappointed in them
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Intrinsic motivation:
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drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that comes from inside a person (e.g. the need to feel smart or competent).
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Extrinsic motivation
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drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that arises from the need to have one's achievements rewarded from outside (e.g. by receiving material possessions or another person's esteem).
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Goals for emotional regulation that seem to be important in certain cultures:
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Overcome fear (United States) Modify anger (Puerto Rico) Temper pride (China) Control aggression (Japan) Be patient and cooperative (Native American Communities)
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psychopathology
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Lack of emotional regulation may be an early sign of
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Externalizing problems
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Involves expressing powerful feelings through uncontrolled physical or verbal outbursts, as by lashing out at other people or breaking things
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Intenalizing problems
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Involves turning one's emotional distress inward, as by feeling excessively guilty, ashamed, or worthless
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externalizing
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Boys tend to be aggressive
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internalizing
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Girls tend to be anxious
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Psychopathology is not typical
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Children of both sexes usually learn to regulate their emotions as their brains mature and their parents nurture them
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Play
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most productive and enjoyable activity that children undertake Archeologists find toys that are many thousands of years old Anthropologists report play in every part of the world
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Form of play changes with age and culture
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Increasingly complex social play is due to brain maturation coupled with many hours of social play Children must learn how to make, and keep, friends
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Peers:
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People of about the same age and social status Provide practice in emotional regulation, empathy, and social understanding Children usually prefer to play with each other rather than with their parents
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Physical setting of a culture shapes
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play
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Solitary play:
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A child plays alone, unaware of any other children playing nearby
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Onlooker play
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A child watches other children play.
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Parallel play:
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Children play with similar toys in similar ways, but not together.
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Associative play:
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Children interact, observing each other and sharing material, but their play is not yet mutual and reciprocal.
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Cooperative play:
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Children play together, creating and elaborating a joint activity or taking turns.
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Rough-and-tumble play
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Play that mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting, but in which there is no intent to harm. Expressions and gestures (e.g. play face) signifying that the child is "just pretending"
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Sociodramatic play:
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Pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in stories that they create.
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Sociodramatic play enables children to:
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Explore and rehearse the social roles enacted around them Test their ability to explain and to convince playmates of their ideas Practice regulating their emotions by pretending to be afraid, angry, brave, and so on Develop a self-concept in a nonthreatening context
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Diana Baumrind (1967, 1971). Parents differ on four important dimensions:
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1. Expressions of warmth: From very affectionate to cold and critical 2. Strategies for discipline: Parents vary in whether and how they explain, criticize, persuade, ignore, and punish. 3. Communication: Some parents listen patiently to their children; others demand silence. 4. Expectations for maturity: Parents vary in the standards they set for their children regarding responsibility and self-control.
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Authoritarian parenting (Baumrind)
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High behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication
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Permissive parenting (Baumrind)
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High nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control
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Authoritative parenting (Baumrind):
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Parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children
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Neglectful/uninvolved parenting (Baumrind):
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Parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of what is going on in their children's lives
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Children of authoritarian parents tend to
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become conscientious, obedient, and quiet but not especially happy feel guilty or depressed and blame themselves when things don't go well rebel as adolescents and leave home before age 20
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Children of permissive parents tend to:
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be unhappy and lack self-control, especially in peer relationships suffer from inadequate emotional regulation be immature and lack friendships (main reason for their unhappiness) continue to live at home, still dependent, in early adulthood
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Children of authoritative parents tend to:
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be successful, articulate, happy with themselves, and generous with others Be well-liked by teachers and peers, especially in societies in which individual initiative is valued
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Critique of Baumrind's Model
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Her original sample had little economic, ethnic, or cultural diversity
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The Significance of Content
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Violence on TV is often depicted as morally acceptable. Children who watch televised violence become more violent themselves. Racial and gender stereotypes are still evident in children's programs
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Empathy:
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ability to understand the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ from one's own.
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Antipathy:
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Feelings of dislike or even hatred for another person.
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Prosocial behavior:
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Actions that are helpful and kind but that are of no obvious benefit to the person doing them. Increases from age 3 to 6
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Antisocial behavior:
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Actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person. Declines beginning at age 2
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Instrumental aggression:
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Hurtful behavior that is intended to get something that another person has and to keep it.
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Reactive aggression:
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An impulsive retaliation for another person's intentional or accidental action, verbal or physical.
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Relational aggression:
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Nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people.
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Bullying aggression:
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Unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attack, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend themselves.
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Physical punishment increases obedience temporarily
answer
but increases the possibility of later aggression.
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Many children who are spanked do not become violent adults;
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other factors (e.g. poverty, temperament) are stronger influences.
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Psychological control:
answer
disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents.
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Time-out:
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disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people and activities for a specified time.
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Age 2:
answer
Children know whether they are boys or girls and apply gender labels consistently
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Age 4
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Children are convinced that certain toys (such as dolls or trucks) are appropriate for one gender but not the other
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Sex differences:
answer
Biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body shape
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Gender differences:
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Differences in the roles and behaviors that are prescribed by a culture for males and females.
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Age 5
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Increased awareness of sex and gender differences
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Age 8:
answer
Belief that their biological sex is a permanent trait
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from age 2 to age 8
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Increase of awareness of sex differences, preferences for same-sex playmates and stereotypical gender activities
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Phallic stage
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Freud's third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure.
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Oedipus complex
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The unconscious desire of young boys to replace their fathers and win their mothers' exclusive love
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Superego:
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In psychoanalytic theory, the judgmental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents
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Electra complex:
answer
The unconscious desire of girls to replace their mothers and win their fathers' exclusive love.
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Identification:
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An attempt to defend one's self-concept by taking on the behaviors and attitudes of someone else.
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Behaviorism
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Gender differences are the product of ongoing reinforcement and punishment "Gender-appropriate" is rewarded more frequently than "gender-inappropriate" behavior
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Social learning theory:
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Children notice the ways men and women behave and internalize the standards they observe
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Gender schema:
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A child's cognitive concept or general belief about sex differences, which is based on his or her observations and experiences. Young children categorize themselves and everyone else as either male or female, and then they think and behave accordingly.
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Systems Theory
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Offers the most complex and comprehensive explanations for gender differences. Genes and culture, parents and peers, ideas and customs all interact, affecting each child.
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Androgyny:
answer
A balance within one person of traditionally masculine and feminine psychological characteristics.
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Industry and Inferiority
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Industrious children at this age actively master culturally valued skills and abilities (e.g. reading, math, collecting, categorizing, counting) Children work on regulating their temper
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Effortful control
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The ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination.
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Industry versus inferiority
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fourth of Erikson's eight psychosocial crises Children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent.
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Latency:
answer
Emotional drives are quiet and unconscious sexual conflicts are submerged. Children acquire cognitive skills and assimilate cultural values by expanding their world to include teachers, neighbors, peers, club leaders, and coaches. Sexual energy is channeled into social concerns.
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Social comparison:
answer
Tendency to assess one's abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring them against those of other people, especially one's peers.
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Social comparison
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Helps children value the abilities they have and abandon the imaginary, rosy self-evaluation of preschoolers. Confidence plummets and inhibition rises from about 18 months of age to 9 years Materialism rises
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Resilience:
answer
The capacity to adapt well despite significant adversity and to overcome serious stress.
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Resilience is dynamic
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a person may be resilient at some periods but not at others
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Resilience is a positive adaptation to stress
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if rejection by a parent leads a child to establish a closer relationship with another adult, that child is resilient.
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Adversity must be significant
answer
- Resilient children overcome conditions that overwhelm many of their peers.
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Stress Hurricane Katrina
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Most Stress b/c of Move, transfer to New School and Damaged Homes
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A network of supportive relatives is a better buffer
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than having only one close parent
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Grandparents, teachers, unrelated adults, peers, and pets
answer
can lower stress.
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Community institutions (e.g. churches, libraries)
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can also be crucial sources of social support.
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Genes affect half or more
answer
of the variance for almost every trait
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Influence of shared environment (e.g., children raised by the same parents in the same home)
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shrinks with age
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Effect of nonshared environment (e.g., friends or schools)
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increases with age
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Children raised in the same households by the same parents
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do not necessarily share the same home environment.
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Changes in the family
answer
affect every family member differently (e.g. depending on age and/or gender)
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Most parents respond to each of their children
answer
differently.
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Family function
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The way a family works to meet the needs of its members.
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Children need families to:
answer
provide basic material necessities encourage learning help them develop self-respect nurture friendships foster harmony and stability
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Family structure:
answer
The legal and genetic relationships among relatives living in the same home; includes nuclear family, extended family, stepfamily, and so on.
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Signs of Maltreatment ages 2-10
answer
-injuries that do not fit an accidental explanation -repeated injuries, broken bones not properly tended -expressions of fear when seeing caregiver -fantasy play with dominant themes of violence -physical complaints -frequent absences from school -no close friendships
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Nuclear family
answer
named after the nucleus (tightly connected particles of the atom), consists of a husband and wife and their biological offspring under 18. (this is about 1/2 of all families with children) Tend to be wealthier, better educated, healthier, more flexible, and less hostile Biological parents tend to be very dedicated to their offspring Similar advantages occur for children who are adopted
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Stepparent family (9%)
answer
Divorced fathers are likely to remarry. Usually his children from a previous marriage do not live with him, but if they do, they are in a stepparent family. Divorced mothers less likely to remarry, but when they do, the children often live with her and their stepfather.
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Blended family
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stepparent family that includes children both to several families, such as biological children from the spouses' previous marriages and the biological children of the new couple. family type is difficult for school-age children.
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Polygamous family (0% in U.S.)
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In some nations, one man has several wives, each bearing his children.
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SIngle mother, never married (10%)
answer
About 1/3 of all newborns born to unmarried mothers, but most of these mothers intend to marry someday. Many of them marry their baby's father or someone else. By school age, their children are often in two-parent families
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SIngle mother-divorced, separated, or widowed (13%)
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Single, formerly married mothers
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Single father, divorced or never married (5%)
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1 in 5 divorced or unmarried fathers has custody of the children. This is rapidly increasing in the U.S. especially among divorced fathers who were actively involved in child rearing when they were married.
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Extended family
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children that live with a grandparent or other relatives, as well as with one or both of their parents.
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Grandparents alone
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For some school-age children, one of two "parents" are their grandparents. This family type is increasing, especially in Africa where AIDS is killing many parents
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Homosexual family
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Custodial parent has homosexual partner or homosexual couple adopts children or a lesbian has a child. Varying laws and norms determine whether these are one-or-two parent families
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Foster family
answer
usually considered temporary and one-or-two parent families depending on the structure of the foster families
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Household:
answer
Composed of people who live together in the same home Two or more people who are related to one another (most common) One person living alone (26%) Nonrelatives living together (6%)
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Family household:
answer
Includes a least one parent and at least one child under age 18 Accounts for about two-thirds of the households in the United States
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Families Headed by Gay Men or Lesbian Women
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Make up less than 1% of all U.S. households Many have children (from previous marriage, assisted reproduction or adoption) Strengths and weaknesses are similar to those of the heterosexual family Children of homosexual parents have the same romantic impulses, school achievements, and psychosocial difficulties as children of heterosexual couples The quality of children's relationships with their parents is more important than the parents' sexual interactions, the family structure, or the household status
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Stepparent must find a role that is not as intimate as that of the biological parents but that allows some involvement with the children.
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Easier if the children are young (under age 3) Difficult if the children are teenagers
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Single-parent family
answer
Children in single-mother families fare worse in school and in adult life than most other children. Single-mother households are often low-income and unstable, move more often and add new adults more often. Single-fathers have a slightly higher income and tend to be slightly older than single mothers.
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Dysfunctional family:
answer
A family that does not support all its members
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Three factors increase the likelihood of dysfunction:
answer
Low Income Instability Low Harmony
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Family stress model:
answer
the crucial question to ask about any risk factor (e.g. poverty, divorce, job loss, eviction) is whether or not it increases the stress on a family
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family-stress model contends
answer
that the adults' stressful reaction to poverty is crucial in determining the effect on the children.
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Children in middle childhood prefer continuity
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Upsetting changes include moving to a new home, being sent to a new school, and changes in the family structure Adults might not realize that these transitions affect schoolchildren
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Children feel a need for harmony
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Parents who habitually fight are more likely to divorce, move, and otherwise disrupt the child's life. Remarriage of divorced parents is often difficult for children due to jealousy, stress, and conflict. Children frequently suffer if parents physically or verbally abuse each other.
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Culture of children:
answer
The particular habits, styles, and values that reflect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adult society. Fashion Language Peer culture
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School-age children value personal friendship more than
answer
peer acceptance
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Gender differences
answer
Girls talk more and share secrets. Boys play more active games.
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Friendships lead to
answer
psychosocial growth and provide a buffer against psychopathology.
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Older children:
answer
Demand more of their friends Change friends less often Become more upset when a friendship ends Find it harder to make new friends Seek friends who share their interests and values
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Social cognition:
answer
ability to understand social interactions, including the causes and consequences of human behavior.
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Social cognition:
answer
Begins in infancy and continues to develop in early childhood Social cognition is well established by middle childhood Children with impaired social cognition are likely to be rejected
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Aggressive-rejected children:
answer
Children who are disliked by peers because of antagonistic, confrontational behavior
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Withdrawn-rejected children
answer
Children who are disliked by peers because of their timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior
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Bullying:
answer
Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person.
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Bully-victim:
answer
Someone who attacks others and who is attacked as well Also called a provocative victim because he or she does things that elicit bullying, such as stealing a bully's pencil
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Successful Efforts to Eliminate Bullying
answer
The whole school must be involved, not just the identified bullies. Intervention is more effective in the earlier grades. Evaluation of results is critical.
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Social smile
answer
(6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces
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Laughter
answer
(3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity
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Anger
answer
First expressions at around 6 month Healthy response to frustration
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Sadness
answer
Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol Stressful experience for infants
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Fear:
answer
Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations
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Stranger wariness:
answer
Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close
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Separation anxiety:
answer
Tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves. If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder.
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Toddlers' Emotions
answer
Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating
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Toddlers' New emotions:
answer
Pride Shame Embarrassment Guilt -Require an awareness of other people -Emerge from family interactions, influenced by the culture
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First 4 months & self-awareness:
answer
Infants have no sense of self and may see themselves as part of their mothers. (no self-awareness)
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5 months & self-awareness:
answer
Infants begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers.
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15-18 months & self awareness:
answer
Emergence of the Me-self Sense of self as the "object of one's knowledge"
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Mirror Recognition
answer
Babies looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses, not until they were 15- to 24-month-olds: did they show self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity.
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Synesthesia
answer
The stimulation of one sensory stimulus to the brain (sound, sight, touch, taste, or smell) by another. Common in infants because boundaries between sensory parts of the cortex are less distinct.
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Cross-modal perception
answer
Infant associates textures with vision, sounds with smells, own body with the bodies of others Basis for early social understanding
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Synesthesia of emotions
answer
Infant's cry can be triggered by pain, fear, tiredness, or excitement; laughter can turn to tears. Infants' emotions are difficult to predict because of the way their brains are activated.
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Particular people begin to arouse specific emotions
answer
Toddlers get angry when a teasing older sibling approaches them or react with fear when entering the doctor's office. Memory triggers specific emotions based on previous experiences.
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Abuse (form of chronic stress)
answer
Potential long-term effects on a child's emotional development High levels of stress hormones indicative of emotional impairment Excessive stress in infants must be prevented
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Stress can be avoided by:
answer
providing new mothers with help and emotional support involving new fathers in the care of the infant strengthening the relationship between mother and father
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Oral stage (first year): (Freud)
answer
The mouth is the young infant's primary source of gratification
question
Anal stage (second year): (Freud)
answer
Infant's main pleasure comes from the anus (e.g. sensual pleasure of bowel movements and the psychological pleasure of controlling them)
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Oral fixation: (Freud)
answer
If a mother frustrates her infant's urge to suck, the child may become an adult who is stuck (fixated) at the oral stage (e.g. eats, drinks, chews, bites, or talks excessively)
question
Anal personality: (Freud)
answer
Overly strict or premature toilet training may result in an adult with an unusually strong need for control, regularity and cleanliness
question
ERIKSON: TRUST AND AUTONOMY (1) Trust versus Mistrust Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
answer
Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met or Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies Early problems can create an adult who is suspicious and pessimistic (mistrusting) or who is easily shamed (insufficient autonomy)
question
BEHAVIORISM
answer
Parents mold an infant's emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment
question
Social learning
answer
The acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others Demonstrated in the classic Bobo Doll study by Albert Bandura
question
Working model (Cognitive Theory)
answer
Set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences A person might assume that other people are trustworthy and be surprised by evidence that this working model of human behavior is erroneous. The child's interpretation of early experiences is more important than the experiences themselves. New working models can be developed based on new experiences or reinterpretation of previous experiences.
question
ETHNOTHEORY
answer
theory that underlies the values and practices of a culture but is not usually apparent to the people within the culture. Example: Culture's ethnotheory includes the belief in reincarnation Children are not expected to show respect for adults, but adults must show respect for their reborn ancestors indulgent child-rearing Perceived as extremely lenient by Western cultures
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SYSTEMS THEORY
answer
Epigenetic approach to development, using all five characteristics of the life-span perspective (multidirectional, multicontextual, multicultural, multi disciplinary, and plastic) Systems theory is especially insightful in interpreting temperament.
question
Temperament
answer
Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation Temperament is epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices
question
The Big Five (acronym OCEAN)
answer
the five basic clusters of personality traits that remain quite stable throughout life: Openness: Conscientiousness: Extroversion: Agreeableness: Neuroticism:
question
Longitudinal study of infant temperament (Fox et al., 2001): Grouped 4-month-olds into three distinct types based on responses to fearful stimulation
answer
Positive (exuberant) Negative Inhibited (fearful) Less than half altered their responses as they grew older Fearful infants were most likely to change Exuberant infants were least likely to change Maturation and child rearing has effect on inborn temperament
question
Goodness of Fit
answer
A similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his or her social context, including family, school, and community`
question
With a good fit
answer
parents of difficult babies build a close relationship parents of exuberant, curious infants learn to protect them from harm parents of slow-to-warm-up toddlers give them time to adjust
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Synchrony in the first few months
answer
Becomes more frequent and more elaborate Helps infants learn to read others' emotions and to develop the skills of social interaction Synchrony usually begins with parents imitating infants
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Attachment
answer
a lasting emotional bond that one person has with another. Attachments begin to form in early infancy and influence a person's close relationships throughout life
question
Preattachment (birth-6 weeks)
answer
newborns signal, via crying & body movements that they need others. when ppl respond positively, the newborn is comforted and learns to seek more interaction. newborns are also primed by brain patterns to recognize familiar voices and faces.
question
Attachment in the making (6 wks - 8 mos)
answer
infants respond preferntially to famimilar ppl by smiling, laughing, babbling. Caregivers' voices, touch, expresisons and gestures are comforting, often over rising the impulse to cry. Trust (Erikson) develops.
question
Classic secure attachment (8 mos-2 yrs)
answer
Infants greet primary caregiver, show separation anxiety, play happily when caregiver is present. Infant & caregiver seek to be close to each other (proximity) & frequently look at each other (contact). Physical touch is frequent.
question
Attachment as launching pad (2-6 yrs)
answer
Young children seek caregivers' praise and reassurance as their social world expands. Interactive conversations & games (hide-n-seek, object play, reading, pretending). Caregivers expected to comfort & entertain.
question
Mutual attachment (6-12 yrs.)
answer
Children seek to make caregivers proud by learning what adults want them to learn. In concrete operational thought (Piaget), specific accomplishments are valued by adults and children.
question
New attachment figures (12-18 yrs)
answer
Teens explore & make friendships on their own, using their working models of earlier attachments as a base. With more advanced, formal operational thinking (Piaget), physical contact is less important; shared ideals and goals are more influential.
question
Attachment revisited (18 yrs on)
answer
Adults develop relationships with others, esp romantic partners & parent-child relationships, influenced by earlier attachment patterns. Earlier care givers continue to be supportive, and adults continue to seek their praise, but they are no longer the prime object of attachment. Past insecure attachments can be repaired, although this does not always happen.
question
Secure attachment:
answer
An infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver. -In play room, child plays happily-mother leaves, child pauses, is not as happy, mother returns, child welcomes her, returns to play
question
Insecure-avoidant attachment:
answer
An infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return -In play room, child plays happily - mother leaves, child continues playing, mother returns, child ignores her.
question
Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment:
answer
An infant's anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion. -n play room, child clings, is preoccupied with mother-mother leaves, child is unhappy, may stop playing, mother returns, child is angry, may cry, hit mother, cling.
question
Disorganized attachment:
answer
A type of attachment that is marked by an infant's inconsistent reactions to the caregiver's departure and return. -In play room, child is cautious - mother leaves, child may stare or yell, looks scared, confused, mother returns, child acts oddly, may freeze, scream, hit self, throw things
question
Children in low-income families are especially vulnerable to obesity
answer
their cultures still guard against undernutrition and their parents may rely on fast foods.
question
Stranger wariness
answer
expressed when an infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close, too quickly (Santa Claus is scary until children are 3 years old)
question
Separation anxiety
answer
expressed in tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves.
question
social smile
answer
smile evoked by a human face, evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth
question
Fear
answer
most infants fear strangers, anything unexpected, from the flush of a toilet to pop of of a jack-in-the-box, closing of elevator doors, to tail wagging of a dog approaching. (9-14 months)
question
12 months
answer
anger and fear
question
self awareness
answer
expressions of pride, shame, embarrassment and guilt
question
Extreme stress
answer
impairs brain and emotional growth
question
Newborns express distress and contentment
answer
and soon infants display curiosity and joy, with social smiles and laughter
question
Psychoanalytic theory connects biosocial and
answer
psychosocial development
question
trust vs mistrust
answer
Erikson's 1st stage. Infants learn trust if basic needs for food, comfort and attention are met
question
autonomy vs shame and doubt
answer
Erikson's 2nd stage. Toddlers succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies.
question
working model
answer
in cognitive theory, set of assumptions an individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences. A person might assume other people are trustworthy and be surprised by evidence that this working model of human behavior is erroneous.
question
Psychoanalytic theory stresses
answer
the mother's responses to the infant's needs for food and elimination (Freud)
question
Psychoanalytic theory stresses
answer
the mother's responses to the infant's needs for security and independence (Erikson)
question
Cognitive theory emphasizes mental frameworks that affect emotions and actions
answer
both the working models held by individuals and the ethotheories developed by societies
question
Systems theories
answer
emphasizes the interactions of genes, child rearing practices and culture, as in the development of temperamental traits and in the proximal or distal approach to parenting
question
goodness of fit
answer
tempermental adjustment that allows smooth infant-caregiver interaction parents of difficult babies build a close relationship parents of exuberant, curious infants learn to protect them from harm parents of slow-to-warm up toddlers give them time to adjust
question
attachment
answer
According to Ainsworth "an affectional tie" that an infant forms with a caregiver, lasting emotional one that one person has with another -When people are attached they respond to each other through proximity-seeking behaviors and contact -maintaining behvaiors
question
social referencing
answer
seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions. The other person becomes a social reference.
question
center day care
answer
child care that occurs in a place, especially designed for the purpose, where several paid adults care for the children. Children grouped by age, center is licensed, and providers are trained and certified in child development.
question
High quality day care has 5 essential characteristics:
answer
1. Adequate attention to each infant 2. Encouragement of language and sensorimotor development 3. Attention to health and safety 4. Well-trained and professional caregivers 5. Warm and responsive caregivers
question
Social referencing
answer
teaches infants whether new things are fearsome or fun
question
Quality of day care
answer
no single type of day care is proven best quality is pivotal for development
question
Indifferent
answer
Type a-insecure/avoidant
question
Overly dependent
answer
Type c-insecure-resistant/ambivalent
question
Disorganized attachment
answer
Type D-most worrisome form/odd or inconsistent response
question
Pollution
answer
affects early development, lead and other toxins harmful to the brain
question
amygdala
answer
tiny brain structure that registers emotions, fear and anxiety
question
hippocampus
answer
brain structure, central processor of memory, esp for locations
question
hypothalamus
answer
produces hormones that activate other parts of the brain and body
question
substantiated maltreatment
answer
harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated and verified
question
permanency planning
answer
an effort by child-welfare authorities to find a long-term living solution that will provide stability and support for a maltreated child. Goal is to avoid repeated changes of caregiver or school, that can be harmful to the child
question
Three levels of prevention
answer
primary, secondary, tertiary
question
Emotional regulation
answer
influenced by brain maturation and social guidance, gradually increases from age 2 to 6
question
Psychopathology may be evident in either
answer
internalizing or externalizing extreme in the expression of emotions
question
Initiative vs. guilt
answer
Erikson's early childhood stage, children are self confident and motivated to try new activities
question
Authoritative parenting (Diane Baumrind)
answer
warm with guidance, is best
question
Industry vs. Inferiority
answer
Allows children to master new skills & absorb their culture's values, but can generate self doubt
question
School age children develop a more realistic self concept than
answer
younger children
question
culture of children
answer
the particular habits, styles, and values that reflect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from adult society
question
Families 5 crucial functions for school-age children:
answer
1. Furnish basic necessities 2. Encourage learning 3. Instill self-respect 4. Nurture friendships 5. Offer a peaceful refuge
question
The nuclear, two parent family, most common and benefits are:
answer
more income, stability and adult attention
question
Low income, family conflict and major life transitions interfere with family functions,
answer
no matter what the family structure is.
question
Compared with 6-year-olds, when it comes to 10-year-olds, do the following:
answer
demand more of their friends, change friends less often, become upset when a friendship ends, find it harder to make new friends, seek friends who share their interests and values.
