Leadership & Mgt Exam 3 Chapt 9-12 – Flashcards
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team leadership
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A team is a specific type of group composed of members who are interdependent, who share common goals, and who must coordinate their activities to accomplish these goals. Examples of such teams include project management teams, task forces, work units, standing committees, quality teams, and improvement teams. Teams have an applied function within an organizational context. A team has specified roles for its members with requisite knowledge and skills to perform these roles (p. 287).
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three primary decisions made by leaders under the team leadership paradigm
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The first of these decisions is whether it is most appropriate to continue to observe and monitor the team or to intervene in the team's activities and take action. The second decision is to choose whether a task or a relational intervention is needed (i.e., does the team need help in accomplishing its tasks, or does it need help in maintaining relationships?). The final decision is whether to intervene at the internal level (within the team itself) or at the external level (in the team's environment). Pg 290
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principled leadership influence team effectiveness (Zaccaro)
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Principled Leadership. Effective team leadership has been found to consistently relate to team effectiveness. Leadership has been described as the central driver of team effectiveness, influencing the team through four sets of processes: cognitive, motivational, affective, and coordination. Cognitively, the leader helps the team understand the problems confronting the team. Motivationally, the leader helps the team become cohesive and capable by setting high performance standards and helping the group to achieve them (p. 302).
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desired team outcomes when evaluating team effectiveness
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focuses on team effectiveness, or the desired outcome of teamwork. Two critical functions of team effectiveness are listed: performance (task accomplishment) and development (maintenance of team). Team performance is the "quality of decision making, the ability to implement decisions, the outcomes of teamwork in terms of problems solved and work completed, and finally the quality of institutional leadership provided by the team" (Nadler, 1998, p. 24). Team development is the cohesiveness of the team and the ability of group members to satisfy their own needs while working effectively with other team members (p. 298).
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internal relational leadership
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Set of actions leader needs to implement to improve team relationships: • Coaching team members in interpersonal skills • Collaborating (including, involving) • Managing conflict and power issues (avoiding confrontation, questioning ideas) • Building commitment and esprit de corps (being optimistic, innovating, envisioning, socializing, rewarding, recognizing) • Satisfying individual member needs (trusting, supporting, advocating) • Modeling ethical and principled practices (fair, consistent, normative)
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team effectiveness characteristics
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Clear, engaging direction - Clear, elevating goal Enabling structure - Results-driven structure; Competent team members; Unified commitment; Collaborative climate Enabling context - Standards of excellence Adequate material resources - External support and recognition Expert coaching - Principled leadership (p. 299)
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external leadership actions
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Set of skills or behaviors leader needs to implement to improve environmental interface with team: • Networking and forming alliances in environment (gather information, increase influence) • Advocating and representing team to environment • Negotiating upward to secure necessary resources, support, and recognition for team • Buffering team members from environmental distractions • Assessing environmental indicators of team's effectiveness (surveys, evaluations, performance indicators) • Sharing relevant environmental information with team
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team leadership criticisms
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• Model is incomplete. Additional skills might be needed • May not be practical as the model is complex and doesn't provide easy answers for difficult leader decisions • Fails to consider teams that have distributed leadership, where team members have a range of skills, and where roles may change • More focus required on how to teach and provide skill development in areas of diagnosis and action taking
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team leadership model puts who or what in the driver's seat of team effectiveness
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leadership
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servant leadership
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servant leadership is an approach focusing on leadership from the point of view of the leader and his or her behaviors, emphasizes that leaders be attentive to the concerns of their followers, empathize with them, and nurture them, put followers first, empower them, and help them develop their full personal capacities, they are ethical and lead in ways that serve the greater good of the organization, community, and society at large. Servant leaders place the good of followers over their own self-interests and emphasize follower development. Leaders demonstrate strong moral behavior toward followers, the organization, and other stakeholders. Practicing servant leadership comes more naturally for some than others, but everyone can learn to be a servant leader. Although servant leadership is sometimes treated by others as a trait, in our discussion, servant leadership is viewed as a behavior.
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servant leadership opposit
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all other types of leadership, they use influencing their followers whereas servant leadership state they should not dominate, direct or control but share control and influence
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servant leadership best test(Greenleaf)
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The best test ... is: do those served grow as persons; do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit, or, at least, will they not be further deprived? (p. 220).
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Spear's 10 characteristics of servant leaders
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Listening - acknowledging the viewpoint of followers and validating these perspectives. Empathy - "standing in the shoes" of another person and attempting to see the world from that person's point of view. Healing - in helping followers become whole, servant leaders are themselves healed. Awareness - understanding oneself and the impact one has on others. Persuasion - creates change through gentle, nonjudgmental argument. Conceptualization - the ability to be a visionary for an organization. Foresight - the ability to predict what is coming based on what is occurring in the present and what has happened in the past. Stewardship - carefully managing the people and organization one has been given to lead. Holding the organization in trust for the greater good of society. Commitment to the Growth of People - treating each follower as a unique person with intrinsic value beyond what he/she contributes to the organization. Building Community - allowing followers to identify with something greater than themselves that they value.
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servant leadership fail to have a positive impact on followers
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that when servant leadership was matched with followers who desired it, this type of leadership had a positive impact on performance and organizational citizenship behavior. The opposite was seen when there was no match between servant leadership and the desire of subordinates for it. It appears that for some followers, servant leadership has a positive impact and, for others, servant leadership is not effective (p. 226).
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healing - servant leadership
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to make whole. Servant leaders care about the personal well-being of their followers. They support followers by helping them overcome personal problems. Greenleaf argues that the process of healing is a two-way street— in helping followers become whole, servant leaders themselves are healed (p. 222)
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Stewardship
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taking responsibility for the leadership role entrusted to the leader. Servant leaders accept the responsibility to carefully manage the people and organization they have been given to lead. In addition, they hold the organization in trust for the greater good of society.
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follower receptivity - servant leadership
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The receptivity of followers is a factor that appears to influence the impact of servant leadership on outcomes such as personal and organizational job performance. Follower receptivity concerns the question "Do all employees show a desire for servant leadership?" Research suggests the answer may be no. Some subordinates do not want to work with servant leaders. They equate servant leadership with micromanagement, and report that they do not want their leader to get to know them or try to help, develop, or guide them (p. 226)
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servant leadership criticism
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=Because the name appears contradictory, SL may be seen as whimsical, or not really "leadership." =Researchers are unable to reach consensus on a common definition or theoretical framework for SL. =The prescriptive overtone suggests that good leaders "put others first" and conflicts with other principles of leadership such as directing, concern for production, etc. It can also sound moralistic, which may deter some researchers. =Conceptualizing is not unique to servant leaders. It is unclear why it is included in this model.
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building community under the servant leadership
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Creating value for the community i. Intentionally giving back to the community ii. Encourage followers to volunteer for community service iii. Ex. Principal of alternative high school
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antecedent conditions that have an impact on servant leadership
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context and culture leader attributes follower receptivity
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Context and Culture
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Servant leadership does not occur in a vacuum but occurs within a given organizational context and a particular culture. The nature of each of these affects the way servant leadership is carried out
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Leader Attributes
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As in any leadership situation, the qualities and disposition of the leader influence the servant leadership process. Individuals bring their own traits and ideas about leading to leadership situations. Some may feel a deep desire to serve or are strongly motivated to lead. Others may be driven by a sense of higher calling
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Follower Receptivity
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The receptivity of followers is a factor that appears to influence the impact of servant leadership on outcomes such as personal and organizational job performance. Follower receptivity concerns the question "Do all employees show a desire for servant leadership
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servant leadership similar to the skills approach and styles approach
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focusing on leadership from the point of view of the leader and his or her behaviors. Servant leadership emphasizes that leaders be attentive to the concerns of their followers, empathize with them, and nurture them. Servant leaders put followers first, empower them, and help them develop their full personal capacities
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servant leadership differs from path-goal theory
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path- goal theory, which lays out principles regarding what style of leadership is needed in various situations. Instead, servant leadership focuses on the behaviors leaders should exhibit to put followers first and to support followers' personal development. It is concerned with how leaders treat subordinates and the outcomes that are likely to emerge
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authentic leadership
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the authenticity of leaders and their leadership
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developmental definition of authentic leadership
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views authentic leadership as something that can be nurtured in a leader, rather than as a fixed trait. Authentic leadership develops in people over a lifetime and can be triggered by major life events, such as a severe illness or a new career (p. 254).
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interpersonal definition of authentic leadership
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outlines authentic leadership as relational, created by leaders and followers together (Eagly, 2005). It results not from the leader's efforts alone, but also from the response of followers. Authenticity emerges from the interactions between leaders and followers. It is a reciprocal process because leaders affect followers and followers affect leaders (p. 254).
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Terry's Action Wheel
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Around the top of the wheel are Meaning, Mission, and Power; clockwise around the bottom are Structure, Resources, and Existence. The center of the wheel is labeled Fulfillment and represents the completion of the process. To answer the questions posed by Terry, two steps are required: (1) Locate the problem on the diagnostic wheel, and (2) strategically select an appropriate response to the problem (pp. 255-256).
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Walumbwa and associates' review of authentic leadership
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conceptualized authentic leadership as a pattern of leader behavior that develops from and is grounded in the leader's positive psychological qualities and strong ethics. They suggest that authentic leadership is composed of four distinct but related components: self-awareness, internalized moral perspective, balanced processing, and relational transparency (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009). Over a lifetime, authentic leaders learn and develop each of these four types of behavior (p. 254).
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Luthans and Avolio's (2003) model of authentic leadership
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Self-Awareness, Internalized Moral Perspective, Balanced Processing, Relational Transparency
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Bill George's authentic leadership approach
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(1) They understand their purpose, (2) they have strong values about the right thing to do, (3) they establish trusting relationships with others, (4) they demonstrate self-discipline and act on their values, and (5) they are passionate about their mission (p. 258).
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our key positive psychological attributes that have an impact on authentic leadership
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Confidence, hope, optimism, resilience Confidence refers to having self-efficacy— the belief that one has the ability to successfully accomplish a specified task. Leaders who have confidence are more likely to be motivated to succeed, to be persistent when obstacles arise, and to welcome a challenge (Bandura, 1997; Luthans & Avolio, 2003). Hope is a positive motivational state based on willpower and goal planning (Luthans & Avolio, 2003). Authentic leaders with hope have goals they know can be accomplished; their hope inspires followers to trust them and believe in their goals. Optimism refers to the cognitive process of viewing situations from a positive light and having favorable expectations about the future. Leaders with optimism are positive about their capabilities and the outcomes they can achieve. They approach life with a sense of abundance rather than scarcity (Covey, 1990). Resilience is the capacity to recover from and adjust to adverse situations. It includes the ability to positively adapt to hardships and suffering. During difficult times, resilient people are able to bounce back from challenging situations and feel strengthened and more resourceful as a result of them (Sutcliffe & Vogus, 2003).
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authentic leadership criticisms
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• The theory is still in the formative stages, so some concepts in the practical approaches are not fully developed or substantiated. • The moral component of AL is not fully explained. It's unclear how higher values such as justice inform authentic leadership. • The rationale for including positive psychological capacities as a part of AL has not been clearly explained by researchers. • The link between authentic leadership and positive organizational outcomes is unclear. It is also not clear whether AL is sufficient to achieve organizational goals.
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critical life events affect authentic leadership
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like receiving an unexpected promotion, having a child, or reading an important book; or they can be negative events, like being diagnosed with cancer, getting a negative year-end evaluation, or having a loved one die. Critical life events act as catalysts for change. Shamir and Eilam (2005) argued that authentic leadership rests heavily on the insights people attach to their life experiences. When leaders tell their life stories, they gain greater self-knowledge, more clarity about who they are, and a better understanding of their role. By understanding their own life experiences, leaders become more authentic. Critical life events also stimulate growth in individuals and help them become stronger leaders (Luthans & Avolio, 2003). For example, Howard Schultz (founder and CEO of Starbucks) tells a story about when he was little: His father, who was a delivery driver, fell and was hurt on the job. His father did not have health insurance or worker's compensation. Seeing the problems that resulted from his father's difficulties, when Schultz built Starbucks he provided comprehensive health insurance for employees who worked as few as 20 hours a week. Schultz's style of leadership was triggered by his childhood experience.
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Critical events are major events that shape people's lives. They can be positive events, What is the role of self-discipline in the authentic leadership paradigm
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Self-discipline is another dimension of authentic leadership, and is the quality that helps leaders to reach their goals. Self-discipline gives leaders focus and determination. When leaders establish objectives and standards of excellence, self-discipline helps them to reach these goals and to keep everyone accountable. Furthermore, self-discipline gives authentic leaders the energy to carry out their work in accordance with their values (p. 260)
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transformational leadership
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the process whereby a person engages with others and creates a connection that raises the level of motivation and morality in both the leader and the follower
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charismatic leaders types of behaviors
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are strong role models for the beliefs and values they want their followers to adopt; appear competent to followers; articulate ideological goals that have moral overtones; communicate high expectations for followers, and they exhibit confidence in followers' abilities to meet these expectations; arouse task-relevant motives in followers that may include affiliation, power, or esteem
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House, when are charismatic effects more likely to occur
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several effects are the direct result of charismatic leadership. They include follower trust in the leader's ideology, similarity between the followers' beliefs and the leader's beliefs, unquestioning acceptance of the leader, expression of affection toward the leader, follower obedience, identification with the leader, emotional involvement in the leader's goals, heightened goals for followers, and increased follower confidence in goal achievement
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transformational leadership
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Bass model - Idealized influence; inspirational motivation; intellectual stimulation; individualized consideration; contingent reward plus management by exception; expected outcomes; performance beyond expectation
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Idealized Influence or charisma
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It is the emotional component of leadership; describes leaders who act as strong role models for followers; followers identify with these leaders and want very much to emulate them.
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inspiration or inspirational motivation
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This factor is descriptive of leaders who communicate high expectations to followers, inspiring them through motivation to become committed to and a part of the shared vision in the organization
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intellectual stimulation
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includes leadership that stimulates followers to be creative and innovative and to challenge their own beliefs and values as well as those of the leader and the organization
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individualized consideration
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This factor is representative of leaders who provide a supportive climate in which they listen carefully to the individual needs of followers
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contingent reward
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the first of two transactional leadership factors (see Figure 9.2). It is an exchange process between leaders and followers in which effort by followers is exchanged for specified rewards
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management-by-exception
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It is leadership that involves corrective criticism, negative feedback, and negative reinforcement. Management-by-exception takes two forms: active and passive
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optimism and employee engagement connection
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employees became more engaged in their work (i.e., vigor, dedication, and absorption) when their supervisors were able to boost subordinates' optimism through a transformational leadership style. These findings underscore the important role played by personal characteristics (i.e., optimism) in the transformational leadership-performance process
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charismatic leadership and transformational leadership connection
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gives more attention to the charismatic and affective elements of leadership; charismatic leadership transforms followers' self-concepts and tries to link the identity of followers to the collective identity of the organization. Charismatic leaders forge this link by emphasizing the intrinsic rewards of work and deemphasizing the extrinsic rewards. The hope is that followers will view work as an expression of themselves. Throughout the process, leaders express high expectations for followers and help them gain a sense of confidence and self-efficacy. In summary, charismatic leadership works because it ties followers and their self-concepts to the organizational identity
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transformational leaders to become strong role models
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They have a highly developed set of moral values and a self-determined sense of identity (Avolio & Gibbons, 1988). They are confident, competent, and articulate, and they express strong ideals. They listen to followers and are not intolerant of opposing viewpoints. A spirit of cooperation often develops between these leaders and their followers. Followers want to emulate transformational leaders because they learn to trust them and believe in the ideas for which they stand
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Laissez-faire
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the laissez-faire leader takes a "hands-off, let-things-ride" approach. This leader abdicates responsibility, delays decisions, gives no feedback, and makes little effort to help followers satisfy their needs. There is no exchange with followers or attempt to help them grow. The absence of leadership A hands-off, let-things-ride approach Refers to a leader who abdicates responsibility delays decisions gives no feedback, and makes little effort to help followers satisfy their needs
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transformational leadership in a proper context when talking about historical figures such as Sadaam Hussein and Adolf Hitler
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Because the conceptualization of transformational leadership set forth by Burns (1978) includes raising the level of morality in others, it is difficult to use this term when describing leaders such as Adolf Hitler and Saddam Hussein, who were transforming but in a negative way. To deal with this problem Bass (1998) coined the term pseudotransformational leadership. This term refers to leaders who are self-consumed, exploitive, and power oriented, with warped moral values (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Pseudotransformational leadership is considered personalized leadership, which focuses on the leader's own interests rather than on the interests of others (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). Authentic transformational leadership is socialized leadership, which is concerned with the collective good. Socialized transformational leaders transcend their own interests for the sake of others
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social architects
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organizations. This means they created a shape or form for the shared meanings people maintained within their organizations. These leaders communicated a direction that transformed their organization's values and norms. In many cases, these leaders were able to mobilize people to accept a new group identity or a new philosophy for their organizations.
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-centric approach to conceptualizing leader-team interactions differ from a leader-centric approach
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Traditional leadership approaches do not explain how leaders develop their teams. "A focus on team leadership necessitates attention to the process by which teams develop critical capabilities. Contingencies that necessitate shifts in leader action are linked to task and team development dynamics that vary within teams and over time" (pp. 288-289)
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distributed leadership and why has it garnered scholars' attention
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involves the sharing of influence by team members who step forward when situations warrant providing the leadership necessary and then stepping back to allow others to lead. Such shared leadership has become more and more important in today's organizations to allow faster responses to more complex issues (p. 289)
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skills leaders must have to meet diverse team needs
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behaviorally flexible and have a wide repertoire of actions or skills; when the leader's behavior matches the complexity of the situation, he or she is behaving with "requisite variety," or the set of behaviors necessary to meet the group's needs (p. 290)
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timing of a leadership intervention
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Leaders differ in their tendencies to take action quickly or to delay taking action by analyzing the situation at length. Leaders who prefer to take action might prevent problems from getting out of control. However, they might not make the right intervention because they do not have all the information, and such fast action might undermine the development of shared leadership. Leaders who prefer to carefully analyze the situation might encourage other team members to emerge as leaders, but the problem might become unmanageable. The exact timing of a leadership intervention is as important as the specific type of intervention
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Conditions of Group Effectiveness (Hackman & Walton)
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Clear, engaging direction Clear, elevating goal Enabling structure Results-driven structure Competent team members Unified commitment Collaborative climate Enabling context Standards of excellence Adequate material resources External support and recognition Expert coaching Principled leadership
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Characteristics of Team Excellence (Larson & LaFasto)
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Clear, elevating goal Results-driven structure Competent team members Unified commitment Collaborative climate Standards of excellence External support and recognition Principled leadership
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qualities needed to be a competent team member
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Competent Team Members. Groups should be composed of the right number and mix of members to accomplish all the tasks of the group. In addition, members need sufficient information, education, and training to become or remain competent team members (Hackman & Walton, 1986). As a whole, the individual team members need to possess the requisite technical competence to accomplish the team's goals. Members also need to be personally competent in interpersonal and teamwork skills. A common mistake in forming teams is to assume that people who have all the technical skills necessary to solve a problem also have the interpersonal skills necessary to collaborate effectively (Hackman, 1990). Team members need certain core competencies that include the ability to do the job and the ability to solve problems. In addition, members need certain teamwork factors such as openness, supportiveness, action orientation, and a positive personal style
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Collaborative Climate
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a. Trust based on openness, honesty, consistency, and respect b. Integration of individual actions c. Teams contribute to collective success by: i. Coordinating individual contributions ii. Team leaders making communication safe iii. Team leaders demanding and rewarding collaborative behavior iv. Team leaders guiding the team's problem-solving efforts v. Team leaders managing their own control needs
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Group Norms - Standards of Excellence
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Regulated Performance Facilitates task completion and coordinated action Stimulates a positive pressure for members to perform at highest levels How Accomplished Requiring results (clear expectations) Reviewing results (feedback/resolve issues) Rewarding results (acknowledge superior performance)
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four sets of processes influencing the team's effectiveness
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i. Cognitive - Facilitates team's understanding of problems confronting them ii. Motivational - Helps team become cohesive & capable by setting high performance standards & helping team to achieve them iii. Affective - Assists team in handling stressful circumstances by providing clear goals, assignments, & strategies iv. Integrative - Helps coordinate team's activities through matching member roles, clear performance strategies, feedback, & adapting to environmental changes
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Internal Task
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• Set of skills or actions leader might perform to improve task performance: • Goal focusing (clarifying, gaining agreement) • Structuring for results (planning, visioning, organizing, clarifying roles, delegating) • Facilitating decision making (informing, controlling, coordinating, mediating, synthesizing, issue focusing) • Training team members in task skills (educating, developing) • Maintaining standards of excellence (assessing team and individual performance, confronting inadequate performance)
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Internal relational
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Set of actions leader needs to implement to improve team relationships: Coaching team members in interpersonal skills Collaborating (including, involving) Managing conflict and power issues (avoiding confrontation, questioning ideas) Building commitment and esprit de corps (being optimistic, innovating, envisioning, socializing, rewarding, recognizing) Satisfying individual member needs (trusting, supporting, advocating) Modeling ethical and principled practices (fair, consistent, normative)
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External team Leadership
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Set of skills or behaviors leader needs to implement to improve environmental interface with team: Networking and forming alliances in environment (gather information, increase influence) Advocating and representing team to environment Negotiating upward to secure necessary resources, support, and recognition for team Buffering team members from environmental distractions Assessing environmental indicators of team's effectiveness (surveys, evaluations, performance indicators) Sharing relevant environmental information with team
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team leadership strengths
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• Provides answers to what constitutes excellent teams • Provides a cognitive guide that assists leaders in designing and maintaining effective teams • Recognizes the changing role of leaders and followers in organizations • Can be used as a tool in group leader selection
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team leadership criticisms
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• Model is incomplete. Additional skills might be needed • May not be practical as the model is complex and doesn't provide easy answers for difficult leader decisions • Fails to consider teams that have distributed leadership, where team members have a range of skills, and where roles may change • More focus required on how to teach and provide skill development in areas of diagnosis and action taking
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compassion
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and heart as important aspects of authentic leadership. Compassion refers to being sensitive to the plight of others, opening one's self to others, and being willing to help them. George (2003, p. 40) argued that as leaders develop compassion, they learn to be authentic. Leaders can develop compassion by getting to know others' life stories, doing community service projects, being involved with other racial or ethnic groups, or traveling to developing countries (George, 2003). These activities increase the leader's sensitivity to other cultures, backgrounds, and living situations. (p. 261).
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Passion
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In addition to knowing their purpose, authentic leaders are inspired and intrinsically motivated about their goals. They are passionate individuals who have a deep-seated interest in what they are doing and truly care about their work (p. 258)
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authentic leadership fit with the following components
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Process, influencing followers, groups, goal attainment all are wrapped up with Bill George's approach (1) They understand their purpose, (2) they have strong values about the right thing to do, (3) they establish trusting relationships with others, (4) they demonstrate self-discipline and act on their values, and (5) they are passionate about their mission (p. 258).
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self-awareness in the AL approach different from the psychodynamic approach
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Self-awareness refers to the personal insights of the leader. It is not an end in itself but a process in which individuals understand themselves, including their strengths and weaknesses, and the impact they have on others. Self-awareness includes reflecting on your core values, identity, emotions, motives, and goals, and coming to grips with who you really are at the deepest level. In addition, it includes being aware of and trusting your own feelings
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altruistic
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It should be noted that in much of the writing on servant leadership there is an underlying philosophical position, originally set forth by Green-leaf (1970), that leaders should be altruistic and humanistic. Rather than using their power to dominate others, leaders should make every attempt to share their power and enable others to grow and become autonomous. Leadership framed from this perspective downplays competition in the organization and promotes egalitarianism
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transformational leadership popularity
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due to its emphasis on intrinsic motivation and follower development, which fits the needs of today's work groups, who want to be inspired and empowered to succeed in times of uncertainty
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pseudo transformational leadership
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focuses on the leader's own interests rather than on the interests of others
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real-world leaders, past or present, could be considered transformational leaders
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Ryan White. This teenager raised the American people's awareness about AIDS and in the process became a spokesperson for increasing government support of AIDS research
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Kouzes and Posner's five practices that enable leaders to get extraordinary things accomplished
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Model the way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to act, and encourage the heart
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transformational leadership strengths
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Broadly researched. TL has been widely researched, including a large body of qualitative research centering on prominent leaders and CEOs in major firms. Intuitive appeal. People are attracted to TL because it makes sense to them. Process-focused. TL treats leadership as a process occurring between followers and leaders. Expansive leadership view. TL provides a broader view of leadership that augments other leadership models. Emphasizes follower. TL emphasizes followers' needs, values, and morals. Effectiveness. Evidence supports that TL is an effective form of leadership
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transformational leadership criticisms
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Lacks conceptual clarity a. Dimensions are not clearly delimited b. Parameters of TL overlap with similar conceptualizations of leadership Measurement questioned c. Validity of MLQ not fully established d. Some transformational factors are not unique solely to the transformational model TL treats leadership more as a personality trait or predisposition than a behavior that can be taught No causal link shown between transformational leaders and changes in followers or organizations TL is elitist and antidemocratic Suffers from heroic leadership bias Has the potential to be abused
