question

______ is the second leading cause of death, after heart disease. -responsible for almost one in four deaths, claiming more than 1,600 lives every day. -Evidence indicates that most could be prevented by simple changes in lifestyle. Tobacco use is respon-sible for about 29% of all deaths -Diet and exercise, including their relationship with obesity, account for another 30% of deaths.

answer

cancer

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the abnormal, uncontrolled multiplication of cells, which can ultimately cause death if left untreated

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cancer

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Most cancers take the form of ________, although not all tumors are cancerous. (or neoplasm) is a mass of tissue that serves no physiological purpose. It can be benign, like a wart, or malignant, like most lung cancers.

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tumors

question

- made up of cells similar to the surrounding normal cells and are enclosed in a membrane that prevents them from penetrating neighboring tissues. They are dangerous only if their physical presence interferes with body functions. - for example, can cause death if it blocks the blood supply to the brain

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benign tumor

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is synonymous with cancer. -Can invade surrounding structures, including blood vessels, the lymphatic system, and nerves. It can also spread to distant sites via the blood and lymphatic circulation, producing invasive tumors in almost any part of the body. -A few cancers, like leukemia (cancer of the blood) do not produce a mass but still have the fundamental property of rapid, uncontrolled cell proliferation.

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malignant tumor

question

Every case of cancer begins as a change in a cell that allows it to ___________ when it should not

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grow and divide

question

In an accessible location (such as a testicle), a tumor may be felt as a _________. In less accessible locations (such as the lungs), a tumor may be noticed only after considerable _______ has taken place and may then be detected only by an indirect symptom, such as a persistent cough or unexplained bleeding or pain.

answer

lump growth

question

the spread of cancer cells, occurs because cancer cells do not stick to each other as strongly as normal cells do and therefore may not remain at the site of the primary tumor, the cancer's original location -->They break away and can pass Page 353through the lining of lymph or blood vessels to invade nearby tissue. They can also drift to distant parts of the body and multiply, establishing new colonies of cancer cells

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metastasis

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This traveling and seeding process is called metastasizing, and the new tumors are _________________, or metastases.

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secondary tumors

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The ability of cancer cells to metastasize makes early cancer detection critical. To control the cancer, every cancerous cell must be removed. Once cancer cells enter either the _________________, it is extremely difficult to stop their spread to other organs.

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lymphatic system or bloodstream

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are important factors in a person's risk of cancer. Certain genes may predispose some people to cancer, and specific gene mutations have been associated with cancer.

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heredity and genetics

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The nucleus of each cell in your body contains 23 pairs of __________, which are made up of tightly packed coils of __________ . Each chromosome contains hundreds or thousands of _________.

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chromsomes DNA genes

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Each of your genes controls the production of a particular __________. By making different ___________ at different times, genes can act as switches to alter the ways a cell works. Some genes are responsible for controlling the rate of cell division, and these genes often play a critical role in the development of cancer.

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protein

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A __________ is any change in the makeup of a gene. Some are inherited; others are caused by environmental agents known as mutagens.

answer

mutation

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Mutagens include_________________ . -Some mutations are the result of copying errors that occur when DNA replicates itself as part of cell division.

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radiation, certain viruses, and chemical substances in the air we breathe

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When a mutagen also causes cancer, it is called a __________.

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carcinogen

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A mutated gene no longer contains the proper code for producing its protein. It usually takes several mutational changes before a normal cell takes on the properties of a cancer cell. Genes that have mutations associated with the conversion of a normal cell into a cancer cell are known as

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onocogen

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Many oncogenes play a role in controlling or restricting cell growth; they are called

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tumor supressor genes

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Mutational damage to suppressor genes releases the brake on growth and leads to rapid and uncontrolled cell _____________ —a precondition for the development of cancer.

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division

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Substances known as ____________ make up another important piece of the cancer puzzle. These substances don't directly produce DNA mutations, but they accelerate the growth of cells, which means less time for a cell to repair DNA damage caused by other factors. ex. Estrogen, which stimulates cellular growth in the female reproductive organs

answer

cancer promoters

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Smoking is responsible for up to ___% of lung cancer deaths and for about ___% of all cancer deaths.

answer

90 29

question

- responsible for nearly one in five American deaths—nearly 480,000 premature deaths each year. The U.S. Surgeon General has reported that _________ use is a direct cause of several types of cancer. In addition to lung and bronchial cancer, tobacco use is linked to cancer of the larynx, mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, kidneys, bladder, and cervix. A -Avoiding tobacco use and exposure to environmental ______________ smoke are key lifestyle strategies for reducing cancer risk

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tobacco

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Diets high in fat and meat may contribute to certain cancers, including:

answer

colon, stomach, and prostate cancer.

question

___________ polyunsaturated fats are associated with a higher risk of certain cancers; omega-3 fats are not

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omega- 6

question

Alcohol is associated with an increased incidence of several cancers. For example, women who have 2 to 5 drinks daily have about 1.5 times the risk of women who drink no alcohol. Alcohol and tobacco interact as risk factors for _______________. Heavy users of both alcohol and tobacco have a risk for oral cancer many times greater than that of people who don't drink or use tobacco.

answer

oral cancer

question

Scientists have found high levels of the chemical _________in starch-based foods that have been fried or baked at high temperatures, especially french fries and certain types of snack chips and crackers. -> is also found in high concentrations in tobacco. When muscle meats (beef, pork, fish, poultry) are cooked at high temperatures, such as when grilled over an open flame or pan fried, different types of cancer-causing chemicals can form.

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acrylamide

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Some essential nutrients act as anticarcinogens. For example,

answer

vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and the carotenoids may help block cancer by acting as antioxidants.

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Many other anti-cancer agents in the diet fall under the broader heading of ____________, substances in plants that help protect against chronic diseases. One of the first to be identified was sulforaphane, a potent anticarcinogen found in broccoli

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phyotchemicals

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Some carcinogens occur naturally in the environment, like

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viruses, suns UV rays

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The food industry uses preservatives and other additives to prevent food from becoming spoiled or stale. Some of these compounds are antioxidants and may actually ___________ any cancer-causing properties in the food.

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decrease

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Other compounds, like the ________ and _________ found in processed meats, are potentially more dangerous -they aren't cancer causing themselves but they can combine with dietary substances in the stomach and be converted to nitrosamines, which are highly potent carcinogens.

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nitrates and nitrites

question

Foods cured with nitrites, as well as those cured by salt or smoke, have been linked to ________ and __________ cancer, and they should be eaten only in modest amounts.

answer

esophageal and stomach

question

The best available data indicate that less than __% of cancer deaths are caused by general environmental pollution, such as substances in our air and water.

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2

question

Exposure to carcinogenic materials in the workplace is a more serious problem. Occupational exposure to specific carcinogens may account for about __% of cancer deaths. With increasing industry and government regulations, industrial sources of cancer risk should continue to diminish.

answer

4

question

All sources of ________ are potentially carcinogenic, including medical X-rays, radioactive substances (radioisotopes), and UV rays from the sun. Most physicians and dentists are quite aware of the risk of radiation, and successful efforts have been made to reduce the amount needed for mammography, dental X-rays, and other necessary medical X-rays. Sunlight is also a potential carcinogen, and care should be taken to avoid excessive exposure.

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radiation

question

About 15-20% of the world's cancers are caused by _________, including viruses, bacteria, and parasites, although the percentage is much lower in developed countries such as the United States.

answer

microbes

question

Certain types of_____________are known to cause oropharyngeal cancer, cervical cancer, and other cancers, and the Helicobacter pylori bacterium has been definitively linked to stomach cancer.

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human papillomavirus (HPV)

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The _________ virus, best known for causing mononucleosis, is also suspected of contributing to Hodgkin's disease, cancer of the nasopharynx, and some stomach cancers.

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Epstein- Barr

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Hepatitis viruses B and C together cause as many as 80% of the world's _______ cancers.

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liver

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Each year, more than ____ million Americans are diagnosed with cancer, and more than 580,000 die

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1.6

question

At current U.S. rates, nearly one in two men and more than one in ____ women will develop cancer at some point in their lives.

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3

question

is the most common cause of cancer death in the United States; it is responsible for about 158,000 deaths each year. Since 1987, lung cancer has surpassed breast cancer as the leading cause of cancer death in women.

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lung cancer

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The chief risk factor for lung cancer is _______________

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tobacco smoke

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When smoking is combined with exposure to other carcinogens, such as asbestos particles, the risk of cancer can be multiplied by a factor of __ or more.

answer

10

question

Quitting substantially reduces risk, but ex-smokers remain at _______ than those who never smoked. And the smoker is not the only one at risk. Long-term exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), or secondhand smoke, also increases risk for lung cancer. ETS causes about 7,000 lung cancer deaths in nonsmoking adults each year.

answer

higher risk

question

Symptoms of lung cancer usually do not appear until the disease has advanced to the invasive stage. Signals such as......... may be indicators of a tumors presence

answer

persistent cough, chest pain, or recurring bronchitis

question

Lung cancer is most often treated by some combination of _________, __________, and ___________; if all the tumor cells can be removed or killed, a cure is possible.

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surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy

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Lung cancer is usually detected only after it has begun to spread, however, and only about ___% of lung cancer patients are alive five years after diagnosis.

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15

question

Another common cancer in the United States is______ and _______ cancer (also called colorectal cancer).

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colon and rectal

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____________ cancer is the third most common type of cancer in both men and women.

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colorectal

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_____ is a key risk factor, with 90% of cases diagnosed in people age 50 and older.

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age

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Many cancers arise from _________________, small growths on the wall of the colon that may gradually develop into malignancies. Many colon cancers may be due to inherited gene mutations.

answer

preexisting polyps

question

Because polyps may ________, the standard warning signs of colon cancer are bleeding from the rectum and a change in bowel habits.

answer

bleed

question

The ACS recommends that regular screening for colon cancer be started at age _____. - can reduce risk of cancer by 90%, but only 60% of people over the age of 50 do the screening tests

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50

question

a flexible fiber-optic device is inserted through the rectum, allowing the colon to be examined and polyps to be removed

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colonoscopy

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_________ is the primary method of treatment for colon and rectal cancer. The five-year survival rate is 90% for colon and rectal cancers detected early and 65% overall.

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surgery

question

___________ is the most common cancer in women but causes about half as many deaths in women as lung cancer. In the United States, about 1 in 8 women will get it , and 1 in 30 women will die from the disease. -occurs only rarely in men.

answer

breast cancer

question

There is a strong ________ factor in breast cancer.

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genetic

question

A woman who has two close relatives with breast cancer is more than ______ times as likely to develop the disease as a woman who has no relatives with it. However, only about 5 to 10% of breast cancers occur in women with a family history of the disease.

answer

four

question

Other risk factors include these:

answer

-> Early-onset menstruation or late-onset menopause -> Having no children or having a first child after age 30 -> Current use of hormone replacement therapy -> Obesity ->Alcohol use ->Smoking cigarettes

question

The female hormone _________ may be a common element for some of these risk factors. -it promotes cell growth in responsive tissues, such as the breast and uterus, so any factor that increases this exposure may raise the risk of breast cancer. -Fat cells produce this, and these levels are higher in obese women. -Alcohol can increase this in the blood as well.

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estrogen

question

Although some risk factors cannot be changed, important lifestyle risk factors can be controlled like: -> can minimize the chance of developing breast cancer, even for women at risk from family history or other factors.

answer

Eating a healthy diet, exercising regularly, limiting alcohol intake, and maintaining a healthy body weight

question

A dietary pattern rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains and lower in refined carbohydrates and animal products is associated with reduced risk of breast cancer. Some studies have found that people with higher __________ intakes or higher blood levels of _________ have a lower risk of breast and certain other cancers

answer

Vitamin D

question

is a low-dose breast X-ray that can spot breast abnormalities before physical symptoms arise. -> The ACS recommends that women begin annual mammograms at age 45; at age 55, women should have mammograms every other year.

answer

mammogram

question

A newer type of mammography, called ___________________, may provide more accurate results in some women, as may magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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digital mammography

question

If a lump in the breast is detected, it can be __________ or scanned by ultrasonography to determine whether it is cancerous. Most lumps are benign.

answer

biopsied

question

If a lump is cancerous, one of several surgical treatments may be used, ranging from a ______________ (removal of the lump and surrounding tissue) to a ___________(removal of the breast). Chemotherapy or radiation treatment may also be used to eradicate as many cancerous cells as possible.

answer

lumpectomy mastectomy

question

which act like estrogen in some tissues but block estrogen's effects in others.

answer

selective estrogen- receptor modulators (SPERM)

question

what are the two best known SPERMs?

answer

tamoxifen and raloxifine

question

, is a special type of antibody that binds to a specific cancer-related target in the body.

answer

trastuzumab

question

If a tumor is discovered early, before it has spread to the adjacent lymph nodes, the patient with breast cancer has about a ____% chance of surviving more than five years. The survival rate for all stages is 90% at five years.

answer

98%

question

The _________ gland is situated at the base of the bladder in men; if enlarged, it can block the flow of urine. _______ cancer is the most common cancer in men and the second leading cause of cancer death in men. Nearly 239,000 new cases of _______ cancer are diagnosed and nearly 30,000 American men die from the disease each year.

answer

prostate

question

The risk factors for prostate cancer are:

answer

increasing age, African ancestry, family history, and certain inherited genetic conditions.

question

what is the strongest predictor of the risk of prostate cancer, with about 56% of cases diagnosed in men over age 65, and 97% of cases occurring in men over age 50?

answer

age

question

_________________________ may be responsible for 5-10% of cases; men with a family history of the disease should be vigilant about screening.

answer

inherited genetic predisposition

question

Diets high in calories, dairy products, refined grains, and animal fats and low in _____________ have been implicated as possible culprits, as have obesity, inactivity, and a history of sexually transmitted infections.

answer

plant foods

question

Type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance are also associated with _______________.

answer

prostsate cancer

question

During this exam, a physician feels the prostate through the rectum to determine if the gland is enlarged or if lumps are present.

answer

rectal examination

question

A specialized test, called the _________________ blood test, is commonly used to detect prostate cancer and can be useful, but the test is controversial because it can yield false-positive results.

answer

prostate specific antigen

question

If the tumor is ___________, the prostate is usually removed surgically. However, a small, slow-growing tumor in an older man may be treated with watchful waiting, because he is more likely to die from another cause than from the cancer.

answer

malignant

question

A less-invasive treatment involves _________ of the tumor by surgically implanting radioactive seeds in the prostate gland. --> Radiation from the seeds destroys the tumor and much of the normal prostate tissue but leaves surrounding tissue relatively untouched. Alternative or additional treatments include external radiation, hormones that shrink tumors, cryotherapy, and chemotherapy. .

answer

radiation

question

The five-year survival rate for prostate cancer is now nearly _____%

answer

100

question

Cancer of the ________ occurs frequently in women in their thirties and even twenties. In the United States, almost 13,000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer each year; the disease kills more than 4,000 women annually.

answer

cervix

question

__________ cancer is largely a sexually transmitted infection (STI). Most cases of _______ cancer stem from infection by the human papillomavirus (HPV), which causes genital warts and is transmitted during unprotected sex. Smoking and prior infection with the STDs herpes and chlamydia may also be risk factors for cervical cancer.

answer

cervical

question

Screening for the changes in cervical cells that precede cancer is done chiefly by means of the -> During a pelvic exam, loose cells are scraped from the cervix and examined

answer

pap test

question

If cells are abnormal but not yet cancerous—a condition referred to as __________-—the Pap test is repeated at intervals. In about one-third of cases, the cellular changes progress toward malignancy.

answer

cervical dysplasia

question

If this happens, the abnormal cells must be removed, either surgically or by destroying them with an ultra cold _____________ probe or localized laser treatment. In more advanced cases, treatment may involve chemotherapy, radiation, or hysterectomy

answer

cryoscopic

question

Cervical cancer can be prevented by avoiding infection with ______. Sexual abstinence, mutually monogamous sex with an uninfected partner, and regular use of condoms can reduce the risk of ______ infection

answer

HPV

question

Cancer of the lining of the uterus the _____________ most often occurs after age 55. Uterine cancer strikes almost 55,000 American women annually and kills more than 10,000 women each year. The risk factors are similar to those for breast cancer. ___________ cancer is usually detectable by pelvic examination. It is treated surgically, as well as by radiation, hormones, and chemotherapy.

answer

endometrium

question

Although _______ cancer is rare compared with uterine cancer, it causes more deaths. - There are no screening tests to detect it, so it is often diagnosed late in its development. The risk factors are similar to those for breast and endometrial cancer. Anything that lowers a woman's lifetime number of ovulation cycles—pregnancy, breastfeeding, or use of oral contraceptives—reduces the risk of ovarian cancer.

answer

ovarian

question

Early symptoms of ovarian cancer may include:

answer

bloating, pelvic or abdominal pain, difficulty eating or feeling full quickly, and urinary problems.

question

Ovarian cancer is treated by surgical removal of....

answer

1 or both ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus

question

Skin cancer is the most common cancer of all when cases of the highly curable forms are included in the count. Of the more than 2.2 million cases of skin cancer diagnosed each year, about 74,000 are of the most serious type, ______________.

answer

melanoma

question

Almost all cases of skin cancer can be traced to excessive exposure to _______________ from the sun, including longer-wavelength ultraviolet A (UVA) and shorter-wavelength ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation.

answer

ultraviolet radiation (UV)

question

this radiation causes sunburns and can damage the eyes and immune system

answer

UVB

question

this is less likely to cause an immediate sunburn, but it damages connective tissue and leads to premature aging of the skin.

answer

UVA

question

Tanning lamps and tanning salon beds emit mostly _____ radiation

answer

UVA

question

the risk of skin cancer ________ in people who have had five or more sunburns in their lifetime.

answer

doubles

question

People with __________ have less natural protection against skin damage from the sun and a higher risk of skin cancer than people with naturally dark skin.

answer

fair skin

question

Severe sunburns in ____________ have been linked to a greatly increased risk of skin cancer in later life, so children in particular should be protected.

answer

childhood

question

Other risk factors of skin cancer include:

answer

having many moles (particularly large ones), spending time at high altitudes, and having a family history of the disease

question

together account for about 95% of the skin cancers diagnosed each year. -> They are usually found in chronically sun-exposed areas, such as the face, neck, hands, and arms.

answer

Basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas

question

They usually appear as pale, waxlike, pearly nodules, or red, scaly, sharply outlined patches. These cancers are often painless, although they may bleed, crust, and form an open sore.

answer

basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas

question

by far the most dangerous skin cancer because it spreads so rapidly. It can occur anywhere on the body, but the most common sites are the back, chest, abdomen, and lower legs. -usually appears at the site of a preexisting mole The mole may begin to enlarge, become mottled or varied in color

answer

melanoma

question

If the lesion is cancerous, it is usually removed __________, a procedure that can almost always be performed in the physician's office using a local anesthetic. Treatment is usually simple and successful when the cancer is caught early.

answer

surgically

question

Even for melanoma, the outlook after removal in the early stages is good, with a five-year survival rate of ____% if the tumor is localized but only 63% if the cancer has spread to adjacent lymph nodes. Most melanomas are detected in the early, localized stage

answer

98

question

___________- cancers of the oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, and nasal cavity—can be traced principally to cigarette, cigar, or pipe smoking, the use of spit tobacco, and the excessive consumption of alcohol.

answer

head and neck cancers

question

Additionally, a subset of cancers of the tonsils and tongue base are strongly related to ____ infection. Head and neck cancer occurs more than twice as often in men as in women and most frequently in men over 40.

answer

HPV

question

Chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery are the primary methods of treatment for head and neck cancers. Patients often endure intense mouth and throat ____________ and some require disfiguring surgeries, but many can be cured. The five-year survival rate is about 66%.

answer

inflammation

question

_____________ is relatively rare, accounting for only 1% of cancers in men, but it is the most common cancer in men age 20-35. - is much more common among white Americans than among Latinos, Asian Americans, or African Americans. -Men with undescended testicles are at increased risk for this cancer, and for this reason the condition should be corrected in early childhood. -Self-examination may help in the early detection of testicular cancer. - are treated by surgical removal of the testicle and, if the tumor has spread, by chemotherapy. The five-year survival rate is 97%.

answer

testicular cancer

question

causes almost 49,000 deaths annually in the United States. The disease is usually well advanced before symptoms become noticeable, and no effective cure is available. About 3 out of 10 cases are linked to smoking. Other risk factors include being male, African American, or over age 60; having a family history of pancreatic cancer; having diabetes; being inactive and obese; and eating a diet high in fat and meat and low in vegetables.

answer

pancreatic cancer

question

is nearly four times as common in men as in women, and almost 2 times higher in white men than in black men. Smoking is the key risk factor. The first symptoms are likely to be blood in the urine and/or increased frequency of urination. These symptoms can also signal a urinary tract infection but should trigger a visit to a physician, who can evaluate the possibility of cancer. With early detection, 96% of bladder cancers are curable. There are about 75,000 new cases and 16,000 deaths each year.

answer

bladder cancer

question

usually occurs in people over 50. Smoking and obesity are mild risk factors, as is a family history of the disease. Symptoms may include fatigue, pain in the side, and blood in the urine. There are about 62,000 new cases each year and about 14,000 deaths.

answer

kidney cancer

question

commonly develops for no apparent reason and can arise from most of the cell types that are found in the brain. One of the few established risk factors for brain cancer is ionizing radiation, such as X-rays of the head. Symptoms are often nonspecific and include headaches, fatigue, behavioral changes, and sometimes seizures. Some brain tumors are curable by surgery or by radiation and chemotherapy, but most are not. There are about 23,000 new cases and 15,000 deaths each year.

answer

brain cancer

question

cancer of the white blood cells, starts in the bone marrow but can then spread to the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, other organs, and central nervous system. Some possible risk factors include smoking, radiation, certain chemicals, and infections. Most symptoms occur because leukemia cells crowd out the production of normal blood cells. The result can be fatigue, anemia, weight loss, and increased risk of infection. There are about 54,000 new cases and 24,000 deaths each year.

answer

leukemia

question

is a form of cancer that begins in the lymph nodes and then may spread to almost any part of the body. There are two types—Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL). NHL is the more common and more deadly form of the disease. Risk factors for NHL are not well understood but may include genetic factors, radiation, and certain chemicals and infections

answer

lymphoma

question

To confirm the type of tumor, a biopsy may be performed. Physicians can then classify the disease according to the extent of the cancer in a patient's body, whether the cancer has invaded nearby lymph nodes, and whether metastases are present. This is usually determined through imaging techniques such as MRI, computed tomography (CT) scanning, ultrasonography, or exploratory surgery. The classifying process is called

answer

staging - there are 5 stages - by judging the extent of each criterion— size or extent, spread, metastases—physicians can determine the cancer's stage, establish how severe it is, and choose the most appropriate treatment based on the extent of the disease.

question

The ideal cancer therapy would kill or remove all cancerous cells while leaving normal tissue __________.

answer

untouched

question

For most cancers, ________ is the most useful treatment. In many cases, the organ containing the tumor is not essential for life and can be partially or completely removed. - this is less effective when the tumor involves cells of the immune system, which are widely distributed throughout the body, or when the cancer has already metastasized.

answer

surgery

question

- is the use of targeted drugs that destroy rapidly growing cancer cells. -Many __________drugs work by interfering with DNA synthesis and replication in rapidly dividing cells. Normal cells, which usually grow slowly, are not destroyed by these drugs. However, some normal tissues such as intestinal, hair, and blood-forming cells are always growing, and damage to these tissues produces the unpleasant side effects of ____________, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and hair loss.

answer

chemotherapy

question

In cancer ________ therapy, a beam of X-rays or gamma rays is directed at the tumor, killing the tumor cells. Occasionally, when an organ is small enough, radioactive seeds are surgically placed inside the cancerous organ to destroy the tumor; they are then removed later, if necessary.

answer

radiation

question

Radiation destroys both _______ and ______________, but because it can be precisely directed at the tumor, it is usually less toxic for the patient than either surgery or chemotherapy, and it can often be performed on an outpatient basis. Radiation may be used as an exclusive treatment or in combination with surgery and/or chemotherapy.

answer

normal and cancerous cells

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