International Marketing Test 1 – Flashcards

Of all the events and trends affecting global business today, four stand out as the most dynamic, the ones that will influence the shape of international business far into the future. These are: (1) the rapid growth of the World Trade Organization; (2) the trend toward the acceptance of the free market system among developing countries in Latin America, Asia, and Eastern Europe; (3) the burgeoning impact of the Internet and other global media on the dissolution of national borders; and, (4) the mandate to properly manage the resources and global environment for the generations to come.

International marketing is the performance of business activities designed to plan, price, promote, and direct the flow of a company's goods and services to consumers or users in more than one nation for a profit. The only difference between the definitions of domestic marketing and international marketing is that in the latter case, marketing activities take place in more than one country.

The international marketer's task is more complicated than that of the domestic marketer because the international marketer must deal with at least two levels of uncontrollable uncertainty instead of one. Uncertainty is created by the uncontrollable elements of all business environments, but each foreign country in which a company operates adds its own unique set of uncontrollable factors.

Assuming the necessary overall corporate resources, structures, and competencies that can limit or promote strategic choice, the marketing manager blends price, product, promotion, channels-of-distribution, and research activities to capitalize on anticipated demand. These controllable elements can be altered in the long run and, usually, in the short run to adjust to changing market conditions, consumer tastes, or corporate objectives

The aspects of the domestic environment uncontrollables include home-country elements that can have a direct effect on the success of a foreign venture: political and legal forces, economic climate, and competition. A political decision involving foreign policy can have a direct effect on a firm's international marketing success. The domestic economic climate is another important home-based uncontrollable variable with far-reaching effects on a company's competitive position in foreign markets. The capacity to invest in plants and facilities, either in domestic or foreign markets, is to a large extent a function of domestic economic vitality. Competition within the home country can also have a profound effect on the international marketer's task.

Competition within the home country can have a profound effect on the international marketer's task. Students' examples might vary. For more than a century, Eastman Kodak dominated the U.S. film market and could depend on achieving profit goals that provided capital to invest in foreign markets. However, the competitive structure changed when Fuji Photo Film became a formidable competitor by lowering film prices in the United States, opening a $300 million plant, and soon gaining 12 percent of the U.S. market. Competition within its home country affects a company's domestic as well as international plans.

Political and legal issues a business faces abroad are often amplified by the "alien status" of the company, which increases the difficulty of properly assessing and forecasting the dynamic international business climate. The alien status of a foreign business has two dimensions: It is alien in that foreigners control the business and in that the culture of the host country is alien to management. The alien status of a business means that, when viewed as an outsider, it can be seen as an exploiter and receive prejudiced or unfair treatment at the hands of politicians, legal authorities, or both. Political activists can rally support by advocating the expulsion of the "foreign exploiters," often with the open or tacit approval of authorities.

The primary obstacles to success in international marketing are a person's self-reference criterion (SRC) and an associated ethnocentrism. The SRC is an unconscious reference to one's own cultural values, experiences, and knowledge as a basis for decisions. Closely connected is ethnocentrism, that is, the notion that people in one's own company, culture, or country know best how to do things. Ethnocentrism is generally a problem when managers from affluent countries work with managers and markets in less affluent countries. Both the SRC and ethnocentrism impede the ability to assess a foreign market in its true light.

The steps are: (1) define the business problem or goal in home-country cultural traits, habits, or norms; (2) define the business problem or goal in foreign-country cultural traits, habits, or norms through consultation with natives of the target country—make no value judgments; (3) isolate the SRC influence in the problem and examine it carefully to see how it complicates the problem; and, (4) redefine the problem without the SRC influence and solve for the optimum business goal situation.

At the "regular foreign marketing" stage, the firm has permanent productive capacity devoted to the production of goods and services to be marketed in foreign markets. A firm may employ foreign or domestic overseas intermediaries, or it may have its own sales force or sales subsidiaries in important foreign markets. The primary focus of operations and production is to service domestic market needs. However, as overseas demand grows, production is allocated for foreign markets, and products may be adapted to meet the needs of individual foreign markets. Profit expectations from foreign markets move from being seen as a bonus in addition to regular domestic profits to a position in which the company becomes dependent on foreign sales and profits to meet its goals.

After World War II, as a means to dampen the spread of communism, the United States set out to infuse the ideal of capitalism throughout as much of the world as possible. The Marshall Plan to assist in rebuilding Europe, financial and industrial development assistance to rebuild Japan, and funds channeled through the Agency for International Development were some of the measures taken by U.S. to strengthen the world economy. With the countries newly freed from colonial powers striving to gain economic independence and the financial assistance offered by the United States, most of the noncommunist world's economies grew, and new markets were created. The benefits of the foreign economic assistance given by the United States flowed both ways. For every dollar the United States invested in the economic development and rebuilding of other countries after World War II, hundreds of dollars more returned in the form of purchases of U.S. agricultural products, manufactured goods, and services. In short, the United States helped make the world's economies stronger, which enabled them to buy more from us.

A nation's balance-of-payments statement records all financial transactions between its residents and those of the rest of the world during a given period of time—usually one year. Each of the nation's financial transactions with other countries is reflected in its balance of payments. A nation's balance-of-payments statement presents an overall view of its international economic position and is an important economic measure used by treasuries, central banks, and other government agencies whose responsibility is to maintain external and internal economic stability. A balance of payments represents the difference between receipts from foreign countries on one side and payments to them on the other.

A balance of payments represents the difference between receipts from foreign countries on one side and payments to them on the other. As the balance-of-payments record is maintained on a double-entry bookkeeping system, it must always be in balance. As on an individual company's financial statement, the assets and liabilities or the credits and debits must offset each other. And like a company's statement, the fact that they balance does not mean a nation is in particularly good or poor financial condition. A balance of payments is a record of condition, not a determinant of condition.

Arguments forwarded by protectionists to maintain government restrictions on trade can be classified as follows: (1) protection of an infant industry, (2) protection of the home market, (3) need to keep money at home, (4) encouragement of capital accumulation, (5) maintenance of the standard of living and real wages, (6) conservation of natural resources, (7) industrialization of a low-wage nation, (8) maintenance of employment and reduction of unemployment, (9) national defense, (10) increase of business size, and (11) retaliation and bargaining. Economists in general recognize as valid only the arguments regarding infant industry, national defense, and industrialization of underdeveloped countries.

The effects of imposing tariffs can be summarized as follows: In general, tariffs increase: • inflationary pressures • special interests' privileges • government control and political considerations in economic matters, and • the number of tariffs (they beget other tariffs via reciprocity). Tariffs weaken: • balance-of-payments positions • supply-and-demand patterns, and • international relations (they can start trade wars). Tariffs also restrict: • manufacturers' supply sources, • choices available to consumers, and • competition.

The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 was designed to deal with trade deficits, protectionism, and the overall fairness of America's trading partners. The bill covers three areas considered critical in improving U.S. trade: market access, export expansion, and import relief. • The issue of the openness of markets for U.S. goods is addressed as market access. The act gives the U.S. president authority to restrict sales of a country's products in the U.S. market if that country imposes unfair restrictions on U.S. products. • The act recognizes that some problems with U.S. export competitiveness stem from impediments on trade imposed by U.S. regulations and export disincentives. Export controls, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA), and export promotion were specifically addressed in the export expansion section of the act. • Recognizing that foreign penetration of U.S. markets can cause serious competitive pressure, loss of market share, and, occasionally, severe financial harm, the import relief section of the act provides a menu of remedies for U.S. businesses adversely affected by imports.

The VER is an agreement between the importing country and the exporting country for a restriction on the volume of exports. They are similar to quotas and also referred to as orderly market agreements (OMAs). A VER is called voluntary because the exporting country sets the limits; however, it is generally imposed under the threat of stiffer quotas and tariffs being set by the importing country if a VER is not established.

An important objective of the United States in the Uruguay Round was to reduce or eliminate barriers to international trade in services. • The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) was the first multilateral, legally enforceable agreement covering trade and investment in the services sector. It provides a legal basis for future negotiations aimed at eliminating barriers that discriminate against foreign services and deny them market access. • Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs) established the basic principle that investment restrictions can be major trade barriers and therefore are included, for the first time, under GATT procedures. • Another objective of the United States for the Uruguay Round was achieved by an agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs ). The TRIPs agreement establishes substantially higher standards of protection for a full range of intellectual property rights than are embodied in current international agreements and it provides for the effective enforcement of those standards both internally and at the border. • Perhaps the most notable achievement of the Uruguay Round was the creation of a new institution as a successor to the GATT—the World Trade Organization.

Inadequate monetary reserves and unstable currencies are particularly vexing problems in global trade. To overcome these particular market barriers that plagued international trading before World War II, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) was formed. Originally 29 countries signed the agreement; now 184 countries are members. To cope with universally floating exchange rates, the IMF developed special drawing rights (SDRs). The SDR is in effect "paper gold" and represents an average base of value derived from the value of a group of major currencies. Rather than being denominated in the currency of any given country, trade contracts are frequently written in SDRs because they are much less susceptible to exchange rate fluctuations.

Loyalty to the family, country, company, and social groups and the strong drive to cooperate, to work together for a common cause, permeate many facets of Japanese behavior and have historical roots that date back thousands of years. Historically, loyalty and service, a sense of responsibility, and respect for discipline, training, and artistry were stressed to maintain stability and order. Confucian philosophy, taught throughout Japan's history, emphasizes the basic virtue of loyalty "of friend to friend, of wife to husband, of child to parent, of brother to brother, but, above all, of subject to lord," that is, to country. A fundamental premise of Japanese ideology reflects the importance of cooperation for the collective good. Japanese achieve consensus by agreeing that all will unite against outside pressures that threaten the collective good.

Historical events always are viewed from one's own biases and self-reference criteria (SRC), and thus, what is recorded by one historian may not be what another records, especially if the historians are from different cultures. Historians traditionally try to be objective, but few can help filtering events through their own cultural biases. Our perspective not only influences our view of history but also subtly influences our view of many other matters. For example, maps of the world sold in the United States generally show the United States at the center, whereas maps in Britain show Britain at the center, and so on for other nations. For a marketer, a crucial element in understanding any nation's business and political culture is the subjective perception of its history.

Citizens of the United States feel they have been good neighbors. They see the Monroe Doctrine as protection for Latin America from European colonization and the intervention of Europe in the governments of the Western Hemisphere. Latin Americans, in contrast, tend to see the Monroe Doctrine as an offensive expression of U.S. influence in Latin America. To put it another way, "Europe keep your hands off—Latin America is only for the United States," an attitude perhaps typified by former U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant, who, in a speech in Mexico in 1880, described Mexico as a "magnificent mine" that lay waiting south of the border for North American interests. The following statement typifies the difference in the perspectives. Most Americans would agree with President John F. Kennedy's proclamation during a visit to Mexico that "Geography has made us neighbors, tradition has made us friends." North Americans may be surprised to learn that most Mexicans felt it more accurate to say "Geography has made us closer, tradition has made us far apart."

Manifest Destiny and the Monroe Doctrine were accepted as the basis for U.S. foreign policy during much of the 19th and 20th centuries. Manifest Destiny, in its broadest interpretation, meant that Americans were a chosen people ordained by God to create a model society. More specifically, it referred to the territorial expansion of the United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The idea of Manifest Destiny was used to justify the U.S. annexation of Texas, Oregon, New Mexico, and California and, later, U.S. involvement in Cuba, Alaska, Hawaii, and the Philippines. The Monroe Doctrine was enunciated by President James Monroe in a public statement proclaiming three basic dicta: no further European colonization in the New World, abstention of the United States from European political affairs, and nonintervention of European governments in the governments of the Western Hemisphere. After 1870, interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine became increasingly broad. In 1881, its principles were evoked in discussing the development of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama.

The Monroe Doctrine, a cornerstone of early U.S. foreign policy, was enunciated by President James Monroe in a public statement proclaiming three basic dicta: no further European colonization in the New World, abstention of the United States from European political affairs, and nonintervention by European governments in the governments of the Western Hemisphere. After 1870, interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine became increasingly broad. Theodore Roosevelt applied the Monroe Doctrine with an extension that became known as the Roosevelt Corollary. The corollary stated that not only would the United States prohibit non-American intervention in Latin American affairs, but it would also police the area and guarantee that Latin American nations met their international obligations. The corollary sanctioning American intervention was applied in 1905 when Roosevelt forced the Dominican Republic to accept the appointment of an American economic adviser, who quickly became the financial director of the small state. It was also used in the acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone from Colombia in 1903 and the formation of a provisional government in Cuba in 1906. The manner in which the United States acquired the land for the Panama Canal Zone typifies the Roosevelt Corollary—whatever is good for the United States is justifiable.

Altitude, humidity, and temperature extremes are climatic features that affect the uses and functions of products and equipment. Products that perform well in temperate zones may deteriorate rapidly or require special cooling or lubrication to function adequately in tropical zones. For example, manufacturers have found that construction equipment used in the United States requires extensive modifications to cope with the intense heat and dust of the Sahara Desert. Within even a single national market, climate can be sufficiently diverse to require major adjustments. Different seasons between the northern and southern hemispheres also affect global strategies. Bosch-Siemens washing machines designed for European countries require spin cycles to range from a minimum spin cycle of 500 rpm to a maximum of 1,600 rpm. Because the sun does not shine regularly in Germany or in Scandinavia, washing machines must have a 1,600 rpm spin cycle because users do not have the luxury of hanging them out to dry. In Italy and Spain, however, clothes can be damp, because the abundant sunshine is sufficient to justify a spin cycle speed of 500 rpm. Mountains, oceans, seas, jungles, and other geographical features can pose serious impediments to economic growth and trade. For example, mountain ranges cover South America's west coast for 4,500 miles, with an average height of 13,000 feet and a width of 300 to 400 miles. This natural, formidable barrier has precluded the establishment of commercial routes between the Pacific and Atlantic coasts.

Sustainable development is a joint approach among those (e.g., governments, businesses, environmentalists, and others) who seek economic growth with "wise resource management, equitable distribution of benefits and reduction of negative effects on people and the environment from the process of economic growth." Sustainable development is not about the environment or the economy or society. It is about striking a lasting balance between all of these. More and more companies are embracing the idea of sustainable development as a "win-win" opportunity. Responsibility for protecting the environment does not rest solely with governments, businesses, or activist groups; however, each citizen has a social and moral responsibility to include environmental protection among his or her highest goals.

For most countries, mass immigration is not well received by the resident population. However, a recent report from the United Nations makes the strongest argument for change in immigration laws as a viable solution. While the developing world faces a rapidly growing population, the industrialized world's population is in decline and rapidly aging. The free flow of immigration will help ameliorate the dual problems of explosive population expansion in less developed countries and worker shortage in industrialized regions. Europe is the region of the world most affected by aging and thus by a steadily decreasing worker-to-retiree ratio. To keep the worker-to-retiree ratio from falling, Europe will need 1.4 billion immigrants over the next 50 years, while Japan and the United States will need 600 million immigrants between now and 2050. Immigration will not help ameliorate the problem though if political and cultural opposition to immigration cannot be overcome.

An underpinning of all commerce is effective communications—knowledge of where goods and services exist and where they are needed and the ability to communicate instantaneously across vast distances. Continuous improvements in electronic communications have facilitated the expansion of trade. First came the telegraph, then the telephone, television, satellites, mobile phones, the computer, the Internet, and combinations of them all. Each revolution in technology has had a profound effect on human conditions, economic growth, and the manner in which commerce functions. Each new communications technology has spawned new business models; some existing businesses have reinvented their practices to adapt to the new technology, while other businesses have failed to respond and thus ceased to exist. The Internet and mobile phone revolutions will be no different; they too affect human conditions, economic growth, and the manner in which commerce operates.

There are several causal factors and social processes that determine and form cultures and cultural differences. Humans make adaptations to changing environments through innovation. Individuals learn culture from social institutions through socialization (growing up) and acculturation (adjusting to a new culture). Individuals also absorb culture through role modeling, or imitation of their peers. Finally, people make decisions about consumption and production through application of their cultural-based knowledge.

Education, one of the most important social institutions, affects all aspects of the culture, from economic development to consumer behavior. The literacy rate of a country is a potent force in economic development. Numerous studies indicate a direct link between the literacy rate of a country and its capability for rapid economic growth. According to the World Bank, no country has been successful economically with less than 50 percent literacy, but when countries have invested in education, the economic rewards have been substantial. Literacy has a profound effect on marketing. Communicating with a literate market is much easier than communicating with one in which the marketer must depend on symbols and pictures. Increasingly, schools are seen as leading to positive cultural changes and progress across the planet.

Cultural values refer to the importance of things and ideas in a particular culture. The most useful information on how cultural values influence various types of business and market behavior comes from seminal work by Geert Hofstede. Studying more than 90,000 people in 66 countries, he found that the cultures of the nations studied differed along four primary dimensions. The four dimensions are as follows: • Individualism/Collective Index (IDV), which focuses on self-orientation; The high side of this dimension, called Individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. Its opposite, Collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society's position on this dimension is reflected in whether people's self-image is defined in terms of "I" or "we." • Power Distance Index (PDI), which focuses on authority orientation; This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities among people. People in societies exhibiting a large degree of power distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low power distance, people strive to equalise the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power. • Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI), which focuses on risk orientation; The uncertainty avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? Countries exhibiting strong UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles. • Masculinity/Femininity Index (MAS), which focuses on assertiveness and achievement. The masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material reward for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented. • Longterm vs Shorterm Avoidance (LTO), The long-term orientation dimension can be interpreted as dealing with society's search for virtue. Societies with a short-term orientation generally have a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth. They are normative in their thinking. They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus on achieving quick results. In societies with a long-term orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. They show an ability to adapt traditions to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results. • Indulgence vs Restraint (IVR) - Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

The Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) measures the tolerance of uncertainty and ambiguity among members of a society. Cultures with high UAI scores are highly intolerant of ambiguity and as a result tend to be distrustful of new ideas or behaviors. They tend to have a high level of anxiety and stress and a concern with security and rule following. Accordingly, they dogmatically stick to historically tested patterns of behavior, which in the extreme become inviolable rules. Those with very high UAI scores thus accord a high level of authority to rules as a means of avoiding risk. Cultures scoring low in uncertainty avoidance are associated with a low level of anxiety and stress, a tolerance of deviance and dissent, and a willingness to take risks. Thus, those cultures low in UAI take a more empirical approach to understanding and knowledge, whereas those high in UAI seek absolute truth.

Linguistic distance is proving useful to marketing researchers in market segmentation and strategic entry decisions. It has been shown to be an important factor in determining differences in values across countries and the amount of trade between countries. The idea is that crossing "wider" language differences increases transaction costs. Over the years, linguistics researchers have determined that languages around the world conform to family trees based on the similarity of their forms and development. For example, Spanish, Italian, French, and Portuguese are all classified as Romance languages because of their common roots in Latin. Distances can be measured on these linguistic trees. If we assume English to be the starting point, German is one branch away, Danish two, Spanish three, Japanese four, Hebrew five, Chinese six, and Thai seven. Other work in the area is demonstrating a direct influence of language on cultural values, expectations, and even conceptions of time. For example, as linguistic distance from English increases, individualism decreases. These studies are among the first in this genre, and much more work needs to be done. However, the notion of linguistic distance appears to hold promise for better understanding and predicting cultural differences in both consumer and management values, expectations, and behaviors.

Richard Nisbett, in his book "The Geography of Thought" broadly discusses differences in "Asian and Western" thinking. He starts with Confucius and Aristotle and develops his arguments through consideration of historical and philosophical writings and findings from more recent behavioral science research, including his own social-psychological experiments. Although he acknowledges the dangers surrounding generalizations about Japanese, Chinese, and Korean cultures, on the one hand, and European and American cultures, on the other, many of his conclusions are consistent with our own work related to international negotiations, cultural values, and linguistic distance. A good metaphor for his views involves going back to Confucius's worthy picture. Asians tend to see the whole picture and can report details about the background and foreground. Westerners alternatively focus on the foreground and can provide great detail about central figures but see relatively little in the background. This difference in perception—focus versus big picture—is associated with a wide variety of differences in values, preferences, and expectations about future events.

Successful foreign marketing begins with cultural sensitivity—being attuned to the nuances of culture so that a new culture can be viewed objectively, evaluated, and appreciated. Cultural sensitivity, or cultural empathy, must be carefully cultivated. That is, for every amusing, annoying, peculiar, or repulsive cultural trait we find in a country, others see a similarly amusing, annoying, or repulsive trait in our culture. For example, we bathe, perfume, and deodorize our bodies in a daily ritual that is seen in many cultures as compulsive, while we often become annoyed with those cultures less concerned with natural body odor. Just because a culture is different does not make it wrong. Marketers must understand how their own cultures influence their assumptions about another culture. The more exotic the situation, the more sensitive, tolerant, and flexible one needs to be. Being culturally sensitive will reduce conflict and improve communications and thereby increase success in collaborative relationships.

Discuss the illusion of similarities facing the international marketer.

Marketers have two options when introducing an innovation to a culture: They can wait for changes to occur, or they can spur change. The former requires hopeful waiting for eventual cultural changes that prove their innovations of value to the culture; the latter involves introducing an idea or product and deliberately setting about to overcome resistance and to cause change that accelerates the rate of acceptance. In fact, much successful and highly competitive marketing is accomplished by a strategy of cultural congruence. Essentially this strategy involves marketing products similar to ones already on the market in a manner as congruent as possible with existing cultural norms, thereby minimizing resistance. However, when marketing programs depend on cultural change to be successful, a company may decide to leave acceptance to a strategy of unplanned change—that is, introduce a product and hope for the best. Or a company may employ a strategy of planned change—that is, deliberately set out to change those aspects of the culture offering resistance to predetermined marketing goals.

Adaptation is a key concept in international marketing, and willingness to adapt is a crucial attitude. Adaptation, or at least accommodation, is required on small matters as well as large ones. In fact, small, seemingly insignificant situations are often the most crucial. More than tolerance of an alien culture is required. Affirmative acceptance, that is, open tolerance may be needed as well. Through such affirmative acceptance, adaptation becomes easier because empathy for another's point of view naturally leads to ideas for meeting cultural differences. As a guide to adaptation, all who wish to deal with individuals, firms, or authorities in foreign countries should be able to meet ten basic criteria: • open tolerance, • flexibility, • humility, • justice/fairness, • ability to adjust to varying tempos, • curiosity/interest, • knowledge of the country, • liking for others, • ability to command respect, and ability to integrate oneself into the environment.

Business customs can be grouped into cultural imperatives, cultural electives, and cultural exclusives. • Cultural imperatives are the business customs and expectations that must be met and conformed to or avoided if relationships are to be successful. A complicating factor in cultural awareness is that what may be an imperative to avoid in one culture is an imperative to do in another. • Cultural electives relate to areas of behavior or to customs that cultural aliens may wish to conform to or participate in but that are not required. In other words, following the custom in question is not particularly important but is permissible. The majority of customs fit into this category. A cultural elective in one county may be an imperative in another. Cultural electives are the most visibly different customs and thus more obvious. Often, it is compliance with the less obvious imperatives and exclusives that is more critical. • Cultural exclusives are those customs or behavior patterns reserved exclusively for the locals and from which the foreigner is barred. Foreign managers need to be perceptive enough to know when they are dealing with an imperative, an elective, or an exclusive and have the adaptability to respond to each. There are not many imperatives or exclusives, but most offensive behaviors result from not recognizing them. Examples Domestic examples: a. Cultural imperatives: It is imperative that one pay income tax, license one's car, or wear a coat and tie to a fine restaurant, not belch in public, etc. b. Cultural electives: One may or may not attend church, one may eat local foods, but doesn't have to. c. Cultural exclusives: An African wouldn't join the KKK. A foreigner couldn't sell firearms for the purpose of overthrowing the government. Foreign examples: a. Cultural imperatives: Not wearing shorts in Mazatlan, Mexico; not doing business on Saturday in Israel. b. Cultural electives: An American businessperson in Mexico may or may not drink tequila or eat burritos. c. Cultural exclusives: It would be inappropriate for an American to go to Vietnam and act like a Moslem.

The very strong belief in the United States that business decisions are based on objective analysis and that managers strive to be scientific has a profound effect on the U.S. manager's attitudes toward objectivity in decision making and accuracy of data. Although judgment and intuition are important tools for making decisions, most U.S. managers believe decisions must be supported and based on accurate and relevant information. Thus, in U.S. business, great emphasis is placed on the collection and free flow of information to all levels within the organization and on frankness of expression in the evaluation of business opinions or decisions. In other cultures, such factual and rational support for decisions is not as important; the accuracy of data and even the proper reporting of data are not prime prerequisites. Furthermore, existing data frequently are for the eyes of a select few. The frankness of expression and openness in dealing with data, characteristic of U.S. businesses, do not fit easily into some cultures.

An individual from a high context culture operating in a low-context culture should be careful about: a. assuming that he has communicated when he has not. b. leaving out major elements of communication. c. depending too much on the spoken word and not enough on writing. d. becoming frustrated by lack of feedback in interpersonal communication. An individual from a low context culture operating in a high-context culture should be careful about: a. communicating messages he did not intend. b. becoming frustrated from the imprecision of his counterpart's communication. c. expending too much on reports and letters. d. missing important communication cues.

Perhaps most fundamental to Western management practices is the notion that competition is crucial for efficiency, improvement, and regeneration. The notion of the "invisible hand," propounded by Adam Smith, justifies competitive behavior because it improves society and its organizations. Competition among salespeople is a good thing because it promotes better individual performance and, consequently, better corporate performance. However, managers and policymakers in other cultures often do not share this "greed is good" view. Cooperation is more salient, and efficiencies are attained through reduced transaction costs. These latter views are more prevalent in collectivistic cultures such as China and Japan.

Perhaps most fundamental to Western management practices is the notion that competition is crucial for efficiency, improvement, and regeneration. The notion of the "invisible hand," propounded by Adam Smith, justifies competitive behavior because it improves society and its organizations. Competition among salespeople is a good thing because it promotes better individual performance and, consequently, better corporate performance. However, managers and policymakers in other cultures often do not share this "greed is good" view. Cooperation is more salient, and efficiencies are attained through reduced transaction costs. These latter views are more prevalent in collectivistic cultures such as China and Japan.

Edward Hall defines two time systems in the world: monochronic and polychronic time. M-time, or monochronic time, typifies most North Americans, Swiss, Germans, and Scandinavians. These Western cultures tend to concentrate on one thing at a time. They divide time into small units and are concerned with promptness. M-time is used in a linear way, and it is experienced as almost tangible, in that one saves time, wastes time, bides time, spends time, and loses time. Most low-context cultures operate on M-time. P-time, or polychronic time, is more dominant in high-context cultures, where the completion of a human transaction is emphasized more than holding to schedules. P-time is characterized by the simultaneous occurrence of many things and by "a great involvement with people." P-time allows for relationships to build and context to be absorbed as parts of high-context cultures.

The extent of a company's marketing orientation has been shown to relate positively to profits. Although American companies are increasingly embracing this notion (and marketing in general), firms in other countries have not been so fast to change from the more traditional production (consumers prefer products that are widely available), product (consumers favor products that offer the best quality, performance, or innovative features), and selling (consumers and businesses alike will not buy enough without prodding) orientations. Recently researchers have empirically verified that for various complex reasons, including cultural explanations, a marketing orientation is less prevalent in a number of other countries; and it can be difficult to encourage such an orientation across diverse business units in global companies.

The gender bias against female managers that exists in some countries, coupled with myths harbored by male managers, creates hesitancy among U.S. multinational companies to offer women international assignments. Despite the substantial prejudices toward women in foreign countries, evidence suggests that prejudice toward foreign women executives may be exaggerated and that the treatment local women receive in their own cultures is not necessarily an indicator of how a foreign businesswoman is treated. A key to success for both men and women in international business often hinges on the strength of a firm's backing. When a female manager receives training and the strong backing of her firm, she usually receives the respect commensurate with the position she holds and the firm she represents. For success, a woman needs a title that gives immediate credibility in the culture in which she is working and a support structure and reporting relationship that will help her get the job done. In short, with the power of the corporate organization behind her, resistance to her as a woman either does not materialize or is less troublesome than anticipated. Once business negotiations begin, the willingness of a business host to engage in business transactions and the respect shown to a foreign businessperson grow or diminish depending on the business skills he or she demonstrates, regardless of gender.

The distinction between bribery and extortion depends on whether the activity resulted from an offer or from a demand for payment. Voluntarily offered payment by someone seeking unlawful advantage is bribery. For example, it is bribery if an executive of a company offers a government official payment in exchange for the official incorrectly classifying imported goods so the shipment will be taxed at a lower rate than the correct classification would require. However, it is extortion if payments are extracted under duress by someone in authority from a person seeking only what he or she is lawfully entitled to. An example of extortion would be a finance minister of a country demanding heavy payments under the threat that a contract for millions of dollars would be voided.

Subornation Lubrication Extortion Bribery Subornation generally involves large sums of money, frequently not properly accounted for, which are designed to entice an official to commit an illegal act of magnitude on behalf of the one paying the bribe. Lubrication, on the other hand, involves a relatively small sum of cash, gift, or service made to a low-ranking official in a country where such offerings are not prohibited by law; the purpose of such a gift being to facilitate or expedite a normal, lawful performance of a duty by an official. Extortion is payment extracted under duress by someone in authority from a person seeking only what one is lawfully entitled to. Bribery is money voluntarily offered by someone seeking unlawful advantage. Lubrication payments are a request for a person to do a job more rapidly or more efficiently, whereas subornation is a request for officials to turn their heads, not do their job, or to break the law. An example of extortion would be a Finance Minister of a country demanding heavy payments under the threat that millions of dollars of investment would be confiscated. Compare an information-oriented culture like America with a relationship-oriented culture like Japan. American culture is low context, individualistic (IDV), low power distance (PDI), obviously close to English, monochronic time-oriented, linguistically direct, and foreground focused, and it achieves efficiency through competition; therefore, it is categorized as an information-oriented culture. Alternatively, Japanese culture is high context, collectivistic, high power distance, far from English, polychronic (in part), linguistically indirect, and background focused, and it achieves efficiency through reduction of transaction costs; therefore, it is properly categorized as a relationship-oriented culture. All these traits are so even though both the United States and Japan are high-income democracies. Both cultures do achieve efficiency but through different emphases. The American business system uses competition, whereas the Japanese depend more on reducing transaction costs.

A sovereign state is independent and free from all external control; enjoys full legal equality with other states; governs its own territory; selects its own political, economic, and social systems; and has the power to enter into agreements with other nations. Sovereignty refers to both the powers exercised by a state in relation to other countries and the supreme powers exercised over its own members.

The ideal political climate for a multinational firm is a stable, friendly government. Radical shifts in government philosophy when an opposing political party ascends to power, pressure from nationalist and self-interest groups, weakened economic conditions, bias against foreign investment, or conflicts among governments are all issues that can affect the stability of a government. At the top of the list of political issues concerning foreign businesses is the stability or instability of prevailing government policies. There are five main political causes of instability in international markets: (1) some forms of government seem to be inherently unstable, (2) changes in political parties during elections can have major effects on trade conditions, (3) nationalism, (4) animosity targeted toward specific countries, and (5) trade disputes themselves.

Nationalism can best be described as an intense feeling of national pride and unity, an awakening of a nation's people to pride in their country. This pride can take an anti-foreign business bias, where minor harassment and controls of foreign investment are supported, if not applauded. Economic nationalism has as one of its central aims the preservation of national economic autonomy, in that residents identify their interests with the preservation of the sovereignty of the state in which they reside. In other words, national interest and security are more important than international relations. Feelings of nationalism are manifested in a variety of ways, including a call to "buy our country's products only" (e.g., "Buy American"), restrictions on imports, restrictive tariffs, and other barriers to trade. They may also lead to control over foreign investment. Generally speaking, the more a country feels threatened by some outside force or the domestic economy declines, the more nationalistic it becomes in protecting itself against intrusions.

Confiscation is the seizing of a company's assets without payment. Expropriation occurs when the government seizes an investment but some reimbursement for the assets is made. Domestication occurs when the host country gradually causes the transfer of foreign investments to national control and ownership through a series of government decrees by mandating local ownership and greater national involvement in a company's management. The ultimate goal of domestication is to force foreign investors to share more of the ownership, management, and profits with nationals than was the case before domestication.

The text lists six economic risks: • Exchange controls: When a nation faces shortages of foreign exchange and/or a substantial amount of capital is leaving the country, controls may be levied over all movements of capital or selectively against the most politically vulnerable companies to conserve the supply of foreign exchange for the most essential uses. • Local-content laws: Countries often require a portion of any product sold within the country to have local content, that is, to contain locally made parts. • Import restrictions: Selective restrictions on the import of raw materials, machines, and spare parts are fairly common strategies to force foreign industry to purchase more supplies within the host country and thereby create markets for local industry. • Tax controls: Taxes must be classified as a political risk when used as a means of controlling foreign investments. In such cases, they are raised without warning and in violation of formal agreements. • Price controls: Controls applied for essential products during inflationary periods can be used to control the cost of living. They also may be used to force foreign companies to sell equity to local interests. • Labor problems: In many countries, labor unions have strong government support that they use effectively in obtaining special concessions from business. Layoffs may be forbidden, profits may have to be shared, and an extraordinary number of services may have to be provided.

The impact of political and social activists (PSAs) can also interrupt the normal flow of trade. PSAs can range from those who seek to bring about peaceful change to those who resort to violence and terrorism to effect change. Often associated with political activism, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are increasingly affecting policy decisions made by governments. Many are involved in peaceful protests, lobbying, and even collaborations with governmental organizations. Many also are involved in mitigating much of the human misery plaguing parts of the planet. Some NGOs have received global recognition for their good works, political influence, and even their brand power.

Cyberterrorism and cybercrime are growing threats for businesses. Although still in its infancy, the Internet provides a vehicle for terrorist and criminal attacks by foreign and domestic antagonists wishing to inflict damage on a company with little chance of being caught. One problem in tracing cyberterrorists and criminals is that it is hard to determine if a cyberattack has been launched by a rogue state, a terrorist, or a hacker as a prank. Moreover, each wave of viruses gets more damaging and spreads so rapidly that considerable harm is done before it can be stopped. The "Slammer," for example, brought Internet service to a crawl. It doubled its numbers every 8.5 seconds during the first minute of its attack and infected more than 75,000 hosts within 10 minutes. Whether perpetrated by pranksters or hackers out to do harm, these incidents show that tools for cyberterrorism can be developed to do considerable damage to a company, an entire industry, or a country's infrastructure.

Relations between governments and MNCs are generally positive if the investment: (1) improves the balance of payments by increasing exports or reducing imports through import substitution; (2) uses locally produced resources; (3) transfers capital, technology, or skills; (4) creates jobs; or (5) makes tax contributions.

Whoville (made up country), as a country, would like to increase its control and ownership of foreign investments in its country. However, Whoville does not want to cut off or discourage foreign investment. Cite and describe a political risk strategy that Whoville could follow that would meet the aforementioned objective.

The Department of Commerce (DOC) is the principal agency that supports U.S. business abroad. The International Trade Administration (ITA), a bureau of the DOC, is dedicated to helping U.S. businesses compete in the global marketplace. Other agencies that provide assistance to U.S. companies include: Export-Import Bank (Ex-Im Bank) underwrites trade and investments for U.S. firms. Foreign Credit Insurance Association (FCIA), an agency of the Ex-Im Bank, provides credit insurance that minimizes nonpayment risk caused by financial, economic, or political uncertainties. The Agency for International Development (AID) provides aid to underdeveloped countries and has limited protection in support of "essential" projects in approved countries and for approved products. The Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) provides risk insurance for companies investing in less-developed countries.