Human Development Final Exam Review
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What is the term for the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual? Select one: a. reliance b. attachment c. parent d. care giver
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b. attachment
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The ____________ demonstrates the limits to a three-year-old child's theory of mind. Select one: a. false belief task b. social referencing c. learning theory
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a. false belief task
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The _________________, located in the brain's temporal lobes, is central to the experience of emotions and provides a link between the perception of an emotion-producing stimulus and a later memory of that stimulus. Select one: a. prefrontal cortex b. hippocampus c. amygdala d. lateral cortex
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c. amygdala
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Research suggests that adults' _________________ remains stable over their lives. Select one: a. cognitive ability b. activity level c. subjective well-being d. ability to achieve happiness
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c. subjective well-being
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____________ encompasses patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual. Select one: a. Genetic predisposition b. Personality c. Inherited characteristics d. Temperament
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d. temperament
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When discussing the dimensions of temperament, what is the term used to refer to the proportion of active time periods to inactive time periods demonstrated by an infant or a child? Select one: a. distractibility b. activity level c. rhythmicity d. intensity of reaction
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b. activity level
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When discussing the dimensions of temperament, what is the term used to refer to a child's response to a new person or object, based on whether the child accepts the new situation or withdraws from it? Select one: a. rhythmicity b. approach-withdrawal c. quality of mood d. intensity of reaction
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b. approach-withdrawal
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According to Thomas and Chess, who carried out a large-scale study of infants in the New York Longitudinal Study, what percentage of children were found to be \"difficult babies\"? Select one: a. 10% b. 5% c. 30% d. 20%
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a. 10%
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According to Erikson, when do we all pass through the trust-versus-mistrust stage? Select one: a. first 18 months of life b. first 5 years of life c. first 12 months of life d. first 2 years of life
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a. first 18 months of life
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According to Erikson, what is the term for the period during which children aged 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action? Select one: a. initiative-versus-guilt stage b. autonomy-versus- shame stage c. individualistic orientation d. collectivistic orientation
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a. initiative-versus-guilt stage
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What is Erikson's term for the period during which toddlers (aged 18 months to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed the freedom to explore, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected? Select one: a. temperamental stage b. Erikson's theory of psychosocial development c. autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage d. trust-versus-mistrust stage
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c. autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage
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What is the term that refers to a style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to the mother, do not seem distressed when she leaves the room, and seem to avoid her when she returns? Select one: a. secure attachment pattern b. Ainsworth Strange Situation c. avoidant attachment pattern d. Bowlby safety and security pattern
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c. avoidant attachment pattern
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Erik Erikson characterized midlife as a period of Select one: a. rigidity. b. generativity-versus-stagnation. c. ego-integrity-versus-depair. d. identify crisis.
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b. generativity-versus-stagnation
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What is the term for the psychological problem that arises when the development of attachment has been severely disrupted, and is characterized by extreme problems in forming attachments to others? Select one: a. ambivalent attachment pattern b. avoidant attachment pattern c. reactive attachment disorder d. disorganized-disoriented attachment pattern
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c. reactive attachment disorder
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What percentage of 1-year-olds fall into the ambivalent classification? Select one: a. 5-10% b. 15-20% c. 5-15% d. 10-15%
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d. 10-15%
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Infant sociability is expressed in all of the following ways EXCEPT Select one: a. showing preferences for peers they are familiar with over peers they do not know. b. showing more interest in peers than in inanimate objects. c. exhibiting high level of social behaviors towards infants they do not know. d. smiling, laughing, and vocalizing when looking at peers.
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c. exhibiting high level of social behaviors towards infants they do not know
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The dysfunction of ______________ may be related to the development of disorders involving theory of the mind as well as autism. Select one: a. mirror neurons b. attachment c. cerebellum d. cerebral cortex
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a. mirror neurons
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Nonverbal expressions of emotion called ___________ are fairly consistent among people of all ages. Select one: a. nonverbal encoding b. discrimination c. emergence d. communication
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a. nonverbal encoding
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What is the term that means the intentional search for information about others' feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events? Select one: a. social referencing b. social smile c. nonverbal encoding d. nonverbal decoding
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a. social referencing
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Children with autism find it particularly difficult to relate to others, in part, because they find it difficult to Select one: a. understand what others are thinking. b. listen to others. c. pay attention. d. use visualization.
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a. understand what others are thinking
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What is the term that refers to the knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it affects behavior? Select one: a. theory of mind b. social referencing c. self-awareness d. learning theory
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a. theory of mind
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Psychologist George Vaillant believed that a stage entered between the ages of 20 and 40, when young adults become centered on their careers, is called Select one: a. career consolidation. b. realistic period. c. fantasy period. d. tentative period.
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a. career consolidation
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The theory that seems to explain the complex relationship between self-esteem and minority group status is Select one: a. social identity theory. b. low self-esteem theory. c. downward social comparison. d. social comparison theory.
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a. social identity theory
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When an adolescent provides another adolescent with opportunities to compare and evaluate opinions, abilities, and physical changes, this is called Select one: a. social comparison. b. social reference. c. peer review. d. reference groups.
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a. social comparison
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According to Ginzberg, the period lasting until about age 11, when career choices are made, and discarded, without regard to skills, abilities, or available job opportunities is called Select one: a. career consolidation. b. tentative period. c. fantasy period. d. realistic period.
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c. fantasy period
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According to John Holland's personality type theory, people who are down-to-earth, practical problem solvers, and physically strong, but have mediocre social skills are best described as Select one: a. realistic. b. enterprising. c. intellectual. d. conventional.
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a. realistic
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Occupations that are associated with relationships are called Select one: a. intrinsic. b. maternal. c. communal. d. agentic.
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c. communal
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Women today make up ____% of the U.S. labor force. Select one: a. 75 b. 55 c. 30 d. 50
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b. 55
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The motivation that causes people to work for their own enjoyment, not for the rewards work may bring is called Select one: a. career consolidation. b. extrinsic motivation. c. status. d. intrinsic motivation.
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d. intrinsic motivation
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When a situation occurs where a highly trained professional experiences dissatisfaction, disillusionment, frustration, and weariness from his/her job, this is called Select one: a. normative life crisis. b. burnout. c. midlife crisis. d. live events hypothesis.
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b. burnout
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According to one analysis, every time the unemployment rate goes up 1%, there is a ____% rise in suicide. Select one: a. 5 b. 10 c. 1 d. 4
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d. 4
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The philosophy of ______________ emphasizes personal identity and the uniqueness of the individual. Select one: a. individualistic orientation b. collectivistic orientation c. western culture d. eastern culture
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a. individualistic orientation
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Older adults may choose to work for all of the following reasons EXCEPT Select one: a. employment offers opportunities to socialize. b. age discrimination is no longer a problem. c. working can provide intellectual rewards. d. they need to work for financial reasons.
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b. age discrimination is no longer a problem
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What is the term for the phenomenon in which minority children indicate preferences for majority values or people? Select one: a. ethnic preference b. race identity c. cultural identity d. race dissonance
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d. race dissonance
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Erikson believed that because of the pressures related to the identity-versus-identity-confusion stage, many adolescents Select one: a. pursue a \"psychological moratorium\" during which they take time off from upcoming responsibilities of adulthood to explore alternative roles and possibilities. b. regress psychologically to an earlier time in their lives or childhood where life was simpler. c. never have the opportunity to fully experience adolescence before they mature and move on to young adulthood. d. become psychologically scarred for life and never fully mature.
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a. pursue a \"psychological moratorium\" during which they take time off from upcoming responsibilities of adulthood to explore alternative roles and possibilities.
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According to James Marcia's definition, commitment is Select one: a. a psychological investment in a course of action or an ideology. b. an adolescent's feeling that he/she is mature enough for a committed relationship. c. a period of identity development in which an adolescent consciously chooses between various alternatives and makes decisions. d. a period of identity development when the adolescent decides whether to concentrate on his/her own development or dedicate himself/herself to others.
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a. a psychological investment in a course of action or an ideology.
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According to James Marcia, the status of adolescents who commit to a particular identity following a period of crisis during which they consider various alternatives is called Select one: a. identity foreclosure. b. identity diffusion. c. identity achievement. d. moratorium.
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c. identity achievement
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Which of the following U.S. societal models views individual cultural identities as needing to be assimilated into a unified culture? Select one: a. bicultural identity model b. multicultural model c. cultural assimilation or melting pot model d. pluralistic society model
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c. cultural assimilation or melting pot model
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The culturally determined psychological timepiece providing a sense of whether we have reached the major benchmarks of life at the appropriate time in comparison to our peers is called Select one: a. social clock. b. maturation. c. intimacy-versus-isolation stage. d. postformal thought.
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a. social clock
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Psychologist Ravenna Helson found that women finding a spouse and embarking on traditional feminine behavior occurs from ages Select one: a. 21-27. b. 16-21. c. 25-30. d. 30-35.
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a. 21-27
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What is the term that describes helping behavior that benefits others? Select one: a. autonomous cooperation b. immanent justice c. moral development d. prosocial behavior
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d. prosocial behavior
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What is the term for nonphysical aggression that is intended to hurt another person's psychological well being? Select one: a. instrumental aggression b. emotional aggression c. relational aggression d. psychological aggression
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c. relational aggression
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Some form of domestic violence occurs in _____% of all marriages in the U.S. Select one: a. 25 b. 75 c. 35 d. 50
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a. 25
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The theory that abuse and neglect of children leads them to be predisposed to abusiveness as adults is called Select one: a. life events hypothesis. b. cycle of violence hypothesis. c. normative crisis generation. d. midlife crisis.
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b. cycle of violence hypothesis
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When discussing marital aggression, all of the following are stages that the couple go through EXCEPT Select one: a. an acute battering incident. b. the fight-or-flight stage. c. the tension-building stage. d. the loving contrition stage.
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b. the fight-or-flight stage.
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What percentage of people who were abused or neglected grow up to be abusive and neglectful to their own children? Select one: a. one fifth b. one fourth c. one third d. one half
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c. one third
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The physical or psychological mistreatment or neglect of elderly individuals is called Select one: a. elder abuse. b. elder ignorance. c. age discrimination. d. ageism.
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a. elder abuse.
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According to Piaget, what is the term for the earliest, broad stage of moral thinking in which rules are seen as invariant and unchangeable? Select one: a. heteronomous morality b. resilience c. preschool morality d. morality
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a. heteronomous morality
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Prosocial behavior that is learned indirectly by observing the behavior of others is called Select one: a. moral development. b. social learning. c. modeling. d. empathy.
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c. modeling
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In its most extreme form, _________ parenting results in neglect. Select one: a. permissive b. authoritarian c. authoritative d. uninvolved
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d. uninvolved
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Bandura's research indicates that when children watch adults modeling aggressive behavior with the Bobo doll, they are likely to Select one: a. be as or more aggressive than the model. b. be frustrated. c. choose to play with the Tinkertoys. d. be less aggressive than the model.
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a. be as or more aggressive than the model.
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According to the social learning theory, modeling paves the way for the development of more general rules and principles in a process called Select one: a. immanent justice. b. empathy. c. abstract modeling. d. autonomous cooperation.
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c. abstract modeling.
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Approximately how many people over the age of 60 experience elder abuse each year? Select one: a. 2.5 million b. 1 million c. 500,000 d. 2 million
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d. 2 million
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Kohlberg proposes that moral development occurs in a fixed order, and that people are unable to reach the highest stage of moral reasoning until __________ due to Select one: a. adolescence; lack of experience and peer pressure. b. young adulthood; lack of experience. c. adolescence; lack of cognitive development. d. middle childhood; lack of cognitive development.
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c. adolescence; lack of cognitive development.
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__________ work is done to help others and requires clear self-sacrifice. Select one: a. Anti-social b. Seflish c. Altruistic d. Cultural
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c. Altruistic
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What is the term for parents who provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their children? Select one: a. authoritative b. authoritarian c. permissive d. involved
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c. permissive
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The Chinese concept of chiao shun suggests that parents should Select one: a. use spanking to punish children as needed. b. be strict, firm, and in control of their children's behavior. c. encourage independence. d. encourage children to think of themselves as partners with their parents.
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b. be strict, firm, and in control of their children's behavior.
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In a new and growing phenomenon, parents are turning to ____________ to help them navigate the trials of parenthood. Select one: a. their own parents b. religious leaders c. clergy members d. parent coaches
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d. parent coaches
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All of the following are rationales for embracing religion and spirituality in adulthood EXCEPT religion Select one: a. helps solve problems that otherwise seem impossible to resolve. b. can help people make sense of catastrophes and disasters of all sorts. c. can provide direct social support to others. d. assists people in making sense of events that otherwise appear to be senseless.
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a. helps solve problems that otherwise seem impossible to resolve.
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What is the term for the capability to adjust emotions to a desired state and level of intensity? Select one: a. autonomous cooperation b. emotional self-regulation c. relational aggression d. instrumental aggression
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b. emotional self-regulation
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What is the term that relates to one's sense of being male or female? Select one: a. sex b. gender roles c. social perceptions d. gender
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d. gender
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According to psychologist Robert Sternberg, the components of love include all of the following EXCEPT Select one: a. decision/commitment component that embodies both the initial cognition that one loves another, as well as the long-term determination to maintain that love. b. companionate love in which strong affection is apparent with people whose lives are deeply involved. c. passion component that comprises the motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance. d. intimacy component that encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, and connectedness.
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b. companionate love in which strong affection is apparent with people whose lives are deeply involved.
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Surveys indicate that a high proportion of the following college students would consider it acceptable to marry without love. Select one: a. Brazilian college students b. Japanese college students c. Pakistani college students d. U.S. college students
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c. Pakistani college students
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For the past three decades, there has been a significant Select one: a. rise in the number of couples getting married. b. decline in the number of couples living together without getting married. c. decline in the number of couples getting married. d. decline in the number of same-sex couples living together.
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c. decline in the number of couples getting married.
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In which of the following countries is cohabitation the norm? Select one: a. Sweden b. United States c. India d. Brazil
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a. Sweden
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What percentage of people eventually marry? Select one: a. 62% b. 90% c. 85% d. 55%
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b. 90%
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Most research regarding marital satisfaction Select one: a. is not conclusive regarding the U-shape and marital satisfaction, but seems to substantiate that men are more satisfied than women. b. is not conclusive regarding the U-shape and marital satisfaction, but seems to substantiate that women are more satisfied than men. c. substantiates the \"U-shaped\" pattern where marital satisfaction is high at the beginning, drops down around the birth of children, and then gradually rises back to its original high level. d. brings the \"U-shape\" in question suggesting that the upturn in the U shape may be illusionary, and that marital dissatisfaction continues throughout life.
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c. substantiates the \"U-shaped\" pattern where marital satisfaction is high at the beginning, drops down around the birth of children, and then gradually rises back to its original high level.
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Although the overall divorce rate has declined in the past two decades, divorce among _________ couples is rising. Select one: a. middle-aged b. young-adult c. elderly d. teen
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a. middle-aged
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Approximately how many people who divorce will remarry again usually within 2 to 5 years? Select one: a. one-quarter b. three-quarters c. one-half d. two-thirds
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b. three-quarters
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Which of the following people is most likely to experience feelings of loneliness and increased physical and mental health problems? Select one: a. divorced women over the age of 40 b. divorced men in general c. divorced women in general d. divorced women under the age of 25
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b. divorced men in general
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According to Robert Sternberg, when two people are living in an arranged marriage or a couple has decided to stay together \"for the sake of the children,\" this is called Select one: a. nonlove. b. liking. c. empty love. d. fatuous love.
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c. empty love.
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Research indicates that when girls are exposed to unusually high levels of ________ prenatally, they are more likely to display stereotypical male behaviors. Select one: a. toxins b. testosterone c. androgens d. estrogen
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c. androgens
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Which of the following terms describes the period in which the sexual organs mature? Select one: a. puberty b. maturation c. growth spurt d. latency
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a. puberty
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_______________ is the belief that people are permanently males or females depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors. Select one: a. Sexual identity b. Gender schema c. Gender identity d. Gender constancy
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d. Gender constancy
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The prevailing ___________________ decades ago was that premarital sex was considered permissible for males but not for females. Select one: a. double standard b. sexual norm c. permissiveness d. orientation
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a. double standard
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The age at which adolescents have sexual intercourse for the first time is ________, and _____ have had sex before the age of 20. Select one: a. increasing; 40% b. declining; 80% c. increasing; 25% d. declining; 50%
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b. declining; 80%
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According to current norms, if sexual intercourse occurs within the context of a long-term, committed, or loving relationship, it is called Select one: a. double standard. b. engagement. c. permissiveness with affection. d. marriage.
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c. permissiveness with affection.
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Which group of teenagers in the U.S. has shown the steepest decline in the number of teenage births in the past decade? Select one: a. Asian American b. Native American c. African American d. Caucasian American
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? (not Caucasian)
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The two major factors that determine whether or not an elderly person will engage in sexual activity are Select one: a. personality traits and physical appearance b. moral views and previous athletic ability c. good physical and mental health and previous regular sexual activity d. sexual permissiveness earlier in life and socioeconomic standing
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c. good physical and mental health and previous regular sexual activity
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The component of love that encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, and connectedness is called Select one: a. passionate (or romantic) love b. passion component. c. intimacy component. d. companionate love.
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c. intimacy component.
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What type of play involves action in which children play with similar toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact with each other? Select one: a. parallel b. functional c. onlooker d. associative
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a. parallel
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Which of the following age groups of women giving birth have increased over earlier decades? Select one: a. 24-28 b. 38-40 c. 30-34 d. 35-38
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c. 30-34
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What is the approximate percentage of children in the U.S. who spend their entire childhood living in the same household with both parents? Select one: a. 25% b. 33% c. 40% d. 50%
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d. 50%
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Immediately after a divorce, both children and parents may show several types of psychological maladjustment for a period that may last from Select one: a. 6 months to 2 years. b. 3 months to 3 years. c. 1 to 3 years. d. 1 to 2 years.
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a. 6 months to 2 years.
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What are the major effects of poverty in children? Select one: a. Strong sense of family, mental health problems, greater likelihood of delinquency b. High absenteeism, greater academic success, cardiovascular disease c. Obesity, high rates of aggression, low stress d. High rates of aggression, poorer academic performance, and conduct problems
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d. High rates of aggression, poorer academic performance, and conduct problems
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When young adults return after leaving home for some period to live in the homes of their middle-aged parents, this is called being Select one: a. in a midlife crisis. b. the sandwich generation. c. boomerang children. d. the empty nest syndrome.
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c. boomerang children.
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Which of the following can assist in conflict resolution when elderly people live with their children? Select one: a. having family meetings b. allowing everyone to be totally independent c. establishing separate living areas. d. establishing ground rules regarding roles
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d. establishing ground rules regarding roles
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What is a major drawback of some continuing-care facilities? Select one: a. not being homogeneous b. location c. type of care d. requiring a substantial initial payment
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d. requiring a substantial initial payment
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What percent of people age 65 to 74 live in nursing homes? Select one: a. 2% b. 4% c. 5% d. 1%
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d. 1%
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Learned helplessness is a belief that Select one: a. being helpless leads to despair. b. being helpless leads to wellness. c. one must help him/herself to receive help. d. one has no control over one's environment.
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d. one has no control over one's environment.
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The number of children that one generation must produce to be able to replenish its numbers is called Select one: a. generation replacement. b. replacement level. c. fertility rate. d. birth rate.
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b. replacement level.
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According to psychologist William Damon, a child's view of friendship passes through all of the stages below EXCEPT Select one: a. basing friendship on intelligence. b. basing friendship on trust. c. basing friendship on psychological closeness. d. basing friendship on others' behavior.
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a. basing friendship on intelligence.
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When living in a blended family, roles and expectations can be unclear, and this is called Select one: a. self-care. b. shared benefits. c. role ambiguity. d. automony.
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c. role ambiguity.
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Middle-school-age girls tend to __________; while middle-school-age boys tend to Select one: a. focus on one or two \"best friends\"; smooth over disagreements. b. have a smaller network of friends; ignore differences in status. c. play in pairs; develop a dominance hierarchy. d. avoid differences in status; have a smaller network of friends.
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c. play in pairs; develop a dominance hierarchy.
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Groups of people with whom one compares oneself are called Select one: a. associates. b. social reference. c. cohorts. d. reference groups.
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d. reference groups.
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Larger groups that are composed of individuals who share particular characteristics but who may not interact with one another are called Select one: a. crowds. b. cliques. c. peers. d. cohorts.
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a. crowds.
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If an adolescent student is liked by some and disliked by others, that adolescent is considered Select one: a. popular. b. rejected. c. neglected. d. controversial.
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d. controversial
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All of the following reasons are explanations as to why people become friends EXCEPT Select one: a. proximity - people form friendships with those nearby and accessible. b. personal qualities such as loyalty, affection, supportiveness, frankness, and a good sense of humor. c. social standing and financial security. d. similarity between people who hold the same attitudes and values.
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c. social standing and financial security.
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The assistance and comfort supplied by another person or a network of caring, interested people is called Select one: a. family. b. assisted living. c. social support. d. extended family.
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c. social support.
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What is the most likely reason for the dramatic decrease in the number of children in the average American family? Select one: a. the increase in religious-based sex-abstinence programs b. the availability and use of effective contraceptives c. the decrease in the number of people getting married d. an increase in same-sex couplings
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b. the availability and use of effective contraceptives
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New York Longitudinal Study Findings
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9 dimensions of temperament 4 temperament types: easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up, average \"goodness of fit model\"
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New York Longitudinal Study Criticisms
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Parental interviews yield: social desirability bias negative bias
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Erikson's Psychosocial Theory (birth-1)
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Trust v. Mistrust
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Erikson's Psychosocial Theory (1-3)
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Autonomy v. Shame and Doubt
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Erikson's Psychosocial Theory (3-5)
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Initiative v. Guilt
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Erikson's Psychosocial Theory (6-adolescence)
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Industry v. Inferiority
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Erikson's Psychosocial Theory (adolescence)
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Identity v. Confusion
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Erikson's Psychosocial Theory (young adulthood)
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Intimacy v. Isolation
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Erikson's Psychosocial Theory (middle adulthood)
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Generativity v. Stagnation
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Erikson's Psychosocial Theory (old age)
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Ego Integrity v. Despair
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Emotional Milestone ~4-6 months
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anger surprise sadness fear
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Emotional Milestone ~6-10 months
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stranger anxiety
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Emotional Milestone ~7-15 months
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separation anxiety
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Emotional Milestone ~18-24 months
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self-conscious emotions: embarrassment pride shame guilt
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Emotional Understanding in Infancy
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Emotional contagion: respond to emotion by showing same emotion Social Referencing: caregiver sets expectation Still-face task: babies expect an emotional response from caregiver; distressed when no reaction
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Emotional Understanding in Early Childhood
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2-3 years old: emotion language 4 years old: use situational information
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Emotional Understanding in Middle-late Childhood
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multiple sources of information increase complexity (i.e. two emotions simultaneously or a false emotion)
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Strange Situation Experiment
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1. Experimenter introduces caregiver and infant to unfamiliar room (1 min) 2. Caregiver and infant alone in room (3 min) 3. Stranger enters, sits quietly, talks to caregiver, and tries to interact with infant (3 min) 4. Caregiver leaves infant alone with stranger (3 min) 5. Parent returns, stranger leaves (3 min) 6. Parent leaves infant alone in the room (3 min) 7. Stranger returns, interacts with and comforts infant (3 min) 8. Parent returns, stranger leaves (3 min)
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Secure Attachment (65-70% of children)
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explore freely in caregiver's presence often visibly upset when caregiver leaves greet caregiver warmly at reunion
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Insecure-Avoidant (20%)
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Little/no distress upon separation avoid contact upon reunion more positive behavior with stranger don't know how to express emotions to parents
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Insecure-Ambivalent (10-15%)
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thoroughly distressed by separations don't settle easily upon reunions mix proximity-seeking and angry behaviors
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Disorganized-Disoriented (4-5%)
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confused, contradictory behaviors dazed, fearful expressions frozen postures lack a coherent strategy often from families of abuse/bad experience
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Cultural Variations in Attachment
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o Germans More insecure-avoidant than Japanese and Americans o Japanese More insecure-resistant (ambivalent) than Germans and Americans o Americans Mostly secure, but the insecure style is split pretty evenly between avoidant and ambivalent
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Baby-Mirror Study
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Red mark on nose to see how child reacts in the mirror. Results: <15 months don't touch red mark 15-17 months some touch red mark 18-24 most touch red mark (all touch red mark by 24 months)
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Consequences of self-recognition
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self-conscious emotions self-labels (\"I, you\") possessiveness categorical self
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Changes in Self Concept
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3-5: concrete, physical, observable characteristics 8-11: more psychological and ability-based adolescence: quality; many domains
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Puppet self-concept task
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choose between two competing statements: \"I like myself\" vs. \"I sometimes don't like myself\" Results: even 3.5 year-olds have some understanding of psychological characteristics
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Identity Achievement (Marcia)
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explore + decide
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Identity Moratorium (Marcia)
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explore + don't decide
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Identity Foreclosure (Marcia)
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decide without exploring
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Identity Diffusion (Marcia)
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don't explore and don't decide
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Consequences of High Self-Esteem
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emotional well-being life satisfaction academic success
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Consequences of Low Self-Esteem
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unstable emotion unsatisfied unsuccessful
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Factors that influence self-esteem
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Parenting patterns (sensitivity; acceptance of child) Cultural values (self-esteem is talked about a lot in America)
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Ginzberg's Career Choice Theory
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• Fantasy period-dream of potential future jobs; unrealistic (childhood-11) • Tentative period-consider possibilities based on job requirements and individual abilities (adolescence) • Realistic period-commit to a career (20s)
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Holland's Personality Type Theory
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Primary Personalities that help determine career: realistic, investigative/intellectual, artistic, social, enterprising, conventional
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Gender Differences in Career Choice
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Women = communal professions Men = agentic professions
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Components of Morality
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Cognition: what you believe Affect: how you feel Behavior: what you do
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Piaget's Moral Development Theory
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Pre-moral (before 4 years) • Don't have good reason for thinking one action is worse than another Heteronomous morality (4-7 years) • Believe that punishment is for its own sake and not for the sake of learning Incipient cooperation (7-10 years) • Transitional stage: understand rules better Autonomous cooperation stage (>10 years) • Understand that rules are set by people and can be changed (In general, Piaget's theory underestimates children's reasoning of moral issues)
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Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning Theory Level 1
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Preconventional Morality • Externally controlled—gaining rewards, avoiding punishment • Stage 1: Punishment & Obedience Orientation o Avoid punishment o Focus on consequences of behavior • Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose Orientation o Satisfying own needs o Exchange theory—is it worth the risk?
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Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning Theory Level 2
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Conventional Morality • Be a good person by maintaining social order • Stage 3: \"Good Boy or Girl\" Orientation o Win approval of others by being a good person • Stage 4: Social Order Maintaining Orientation o Societal laws are important o Our personal duty to uphold laws
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Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning Theory Level 3
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Postconventional Morality • Abstract principles & values that apply to all situations/societies • Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation o Laws are flexible o Follow when consistent with human rights • Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation o Self-chosen ethical principles o Abstract values (e.g., preservation of human life)
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Gilligan's Gender Differences in Morality
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Morality of justice (male) • Assume competition, different interests • Value rules for resolving competing interests Morality of care (female) • Assume one's welfare is interconnected with that of others • Assume responsibility for others
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Types of Aggression
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Instrumental: behave to get something from others (no harm intended) Hostile: with intent to harm -Overt: physical (boys) -Relational: damaging relationships (girls)
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Bandura's Social Learning Theory
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Aggression is observed: watching aggression leads to aggression... Bobo Doll experiment
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Social Information Processing Model of Aggression (Dodge)
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Encoding Interpretation Goal formulation response access/generation response evaluation/selection behavioral enactment
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Puzzle Study
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Work on puzzle; told peer is doing the same; leave room; hear recording of 3 conditions: hostile, benign, and ambiguous of the peer breaking the puzzle. Results: -hostile: aggressive and non-agressive boys retaliate -benign: neither retaliate -ambiguous: aggressive retaliate
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Functions of Dating in younger adolescents
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egocentric motives, immediate gratifications
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Functions of Dating in older adolescents
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intimacy, reciprocal aspects of relationships (safe base)
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Gender Differences in reasons for dating
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Females: interpersonal (closeness, intimacy, social support, attachment) Males: sexual/physical reasons
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Sternberg's Triangular Theory
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Intimacy, Commitment, Passion
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Intimacy + commitment + passion = ?
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Consummate love
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Types of Play
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• Pretend play • Functional play—simple repetitive activities (i.e. throwing a ball around repeatedly) • Constructive play • Solitary: alone, mostly ignore others • Parallel: side by side, but little interaction • On-looker: watch others play • Associative: actively interact, but don't work together (their own puzzles or Lego buildings, etc.) • Cooperative: join forces to achieve goal
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Research on Peer Status: Nominations
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• Positive nominations 3 classmates children like most • Negative nominations 3 classmates children like least • Popular: many positive & few negative nominations • Rejected: few positive & many negative nominations • Controversial: many positive & many negative • Neglected: few positive or negative nominations • Average: average # of both positive & negative
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Damon's Stages of Friendship
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• Stage 1 (ages 4-7 years) • Basing friendship on other's behavior Whether the person is nice to them, etc. • Stage 2 (ages 8-10 years) • Basing friendship on trust More psychological and personal states • Stage 3 (ages 11-15 years) • Basing friendship on psychological closeness
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Dyadic Relationships in family
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Mother-child relationship is emphasized; father-child and mother-father also exist
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Triadic Relationship
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Father-Mother-Child-Father
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Bronfenbrenner's bio-ecological model: microsystem
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activities, relationships in child's immediate environment: family, school, neighborhood
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Bronfenbrenner's bio-ecological model: mesosystem
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relationships among microsystems (e.g. relationship between home and school)
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Bronfenbrenner's bio-ecological model: exosystem
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children do not inhabit this, but it affects the microsystem parents' workplace, health and welfare services, etc.
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Bronfenbrenner's bio-ecological model: macrosystem
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overarching values, beliefs, customs, practices
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Two dimensions of parenting:
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control and warmth
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High warmth; high control
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Authoritative
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Low warmth; high control
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Authoritarian
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High warmth; low control
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Permissive
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Low warmth; low control
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Uninvolved (neglectful)
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Why divorce has negative consequences:
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transition: physical and psychological depleted resources: physical and psychological conflict: because of divorce or preceding divorce
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Functional death
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an absence of heartbeat and breathing
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Brain death
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no signs of brain activity
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Legal death
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in the US, we mostly rely on the absence of brain functioning, although some laws still include a definition related to respiration and heartbeat
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Causes of death in Infants
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miscarriage, still birth, sudden infant death
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Causes of death in Childhood
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accidents, homicides
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Causes of death in Adolescence and Young Adulthood
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accident, homicide, suicide, cancer, AIDS
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Causes of death in Middle Adulthood
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heart attack or stroke
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Causes of death in Late Adulthood
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cancer, stroke, and heart disease
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Reactions to death in Childhood
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finality and irreversibility of death customs involved with death
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Reactions to death in Adolescence
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unrealistic view of death personal fable: egocentric; take risky behaviors that cause accidents and sometimes death denial and depression
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Reactions to death in Young Adulthood
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death seems unthinkable: don't expect illness, etc. creates feelings of anger or impatience
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Reactions to death in Middle Adulthood
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life-threatening disease is not surprising fear of death is often greatest at this point (concerned about health)
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Reactions to death in Late Adulthood
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realize death is imminent less anxiety high suicide rate (especially for white males 85+)
