Human Development Exam 2 Book Notes – Flashcards

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reflexes
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unlearned responses that are triggered by a specific form of stimulation
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yes
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do babies who practice the stepping reflex often learn to walk earlier?
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withdrawl reflex
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infants with damage to the sciatic nerve do not show the (blank) reflex
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babinski reflex
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infants who have problems with the lower part of the spine do not show the (blank) reflex
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apgar score
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provides a quick, approximate assessment of the newborn's status focusing on the body systems needed to sustain life
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1. breathing 2. heartbeat 3. muscle tone 4. presence of reflexes 5. skin tone
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the apgar score assesses what 5 things?
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-7 -4 to 6 -3
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each of the five vital signs assessed on the apgar score recieves a score of 0, 1, or 2 - with 2 being optimal -when the five scores are added together a total score of (#) or more indicates that the baby is in good physical condition -score of (# - #) means newborn needs special attention and care -score of (#) or less signals a life-threatening situation
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Neonatal Behavorial Assessment Scale (NBAS)
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for a comprehensive evaluation of the newborn's well being, doctors sometimes administer what?
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Neonatal Behavorial Assessment Scale
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this is used with newborns to 2-month-olds to provide a detailed portrait of the baby's behavioral repertorie
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behavorial - reflexes
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the neonatal behavorial assessment scale includes 28 (blank) items along with 18 items that test (blank)
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1. autonomic: ability to control body functions 2. motor: ability to control body movements and activity level 3. state: ability to maintain a state 4. social: ability to interact with people
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the babys performance on the NBAS is used to evaluate the functioning of what four systems?
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babinski
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which reflex? baby's toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe
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moro
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which reflex? baby throws its arm out and then inward in response to loud noises or when its head falls
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palmar
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which reflex? baby grasps an object palced in the palm of its hand
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rooting
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which reflex? when a baby's cheek is stroked, it turns its head toward the stroking and opens its mouth
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stepping
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which reflex? a baby who is held upright by an adult and is then moved forward begins to step
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f.y.i
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researchers use scores on the NBAS to predict later development
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1. alert inactivity 2. waking activity 3. crying 4. sleeping
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newborns spend most of each day alternating among what four states?
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alert inactivity
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state in which a baby is calm with eyes open and attentive; the baby seems to be deliberately inspecting the environment
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waking activity
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state in which a baby's eyes are open but seem unfocused while the arms or legs move in bursts of uncoordinated motion
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crying
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state in which a baby cries vigorously, usually accompanied by agitated but uncoorinated movement
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sleeping
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state in which a baby alternates from being still and breathing regularly to mocing gently and breathing irregularly; the eyes are closed throughout
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2 to 3 hours
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newborns spend how many hours each day crying?
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1. basic cry 2. mad cry 3. pain cry
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what are the three types of crying?
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basic cry
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cry that starts softly and gradually becomes more intense; often heard when babies are hungry or tired
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mad cry
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more intense version of a basic cry
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pain cry
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cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a long pause and gasping
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f.y.i
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if parent respond immediately, EVERY TIME their infant cries, the result may well be a fussy whiny baby - instead, parents need to consider why their infant is crying and the intensity of the crying
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true
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true or false: crying is a newborns first attempt to communicate with others
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16 to 18 hours
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how many hours a day do newborns sleep?
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4 awake for an hour, sleep for 3 hours
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newborns go through a cycle of wakefulness and sleep about every (#) hours
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5 to 6 hours 10 to 12 hours
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by 3 or 4 months, many babies sleep for (# to #) hours straight - by 6 months sleep (# to #) hour at night
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f.y.i.
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by 6 months, most north american infants are sleeping in a crib in their own room
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no, research provides no evidence
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true or false: does co-sleeping make children more dependent on their parents?
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REM sleep (irregular or rapid-eye-movement)
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roughly half of newborns' sleep is (blank) sleep, a time when the body is quite active
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regular (nonREM) sleep
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sleep in which heart rate, breathing, and braina ctivity are steady
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f.y.i
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REM sleep becomes less frequent as infants grow by 4 months only - 40% of sleep is REM sleep by first birthday - 25%
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13
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2 year olds spend about (#) hours sleeping
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sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
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when a healthy baby dies suddenly for no apparent reason
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1 to 3 2 to 4
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approx. (# to #) of every 1,000 american babies dies from SIDS most of them are between (# and #) months of age
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1. premature 2. low birth weight 3. sleeping on stomach 4. winter 5. overheated by too many blankets of clothing
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name some risk factors for SIDS:
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true
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true or false: african american infants are twice as likely to die from SIDS
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temperament
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consistent style or pattern of behavior
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1. surgency/extroversion: refers to the extent to which a child is generally happy, active, vocal, and regularly seeks interesting stimulation 2. negative affect: refers to the extent to which a childd is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy, and not easily soothed 3. effortful control: refers to the extent to which a child can focus attention, is not readily distracted, and can inhibt responses
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mary rothbart devised a theory of temperament that includes three different dimensions:
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f.y.i
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dimensions of temperament emerge in infancy, continue into childhood, and are related to dimensions of personality that are found in adolescence and adulthood
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heredity and experience
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temperament reflects what two things?
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negative effect
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the impact of heredity also depends on the temperamental dimension and the child's age - (blank) is more influenced by heredity then the other dimensions, and temperament in childhood is more influences by heredity then is temperament in infancy
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emotional fearful and emotionally negative
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some temperamental charaacteristics are more common in some cultures - asian babies tend to be less (blank) than european american babies russian babies are more (blank) and (blank)
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true
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true or false: temperament may make some children particularly susceptible to environmental influences
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yes - but its not a "sure thing", its more of a predisposition
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is temperament moderately stable throughout infancy, childhood, and adolescnece?
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true
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true or false: an infants temperament may determine the experiences that parents provide
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double - triple
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infants (blank) their birth weight by 3 months of age and (blank) it by their first birthday
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40%
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in a typical 2 month old, roughly (#) percent of the bodys energy is devoted to growth
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600
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young babies must consume an enormous number of calories relative to their body weight - typical 12 pound 3 month old should ingest (#) calories daily (about 50 lbs per pound of body weight - an adult on the other hand only need 15-20 calories per lb.)
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1. ill less often 2. less prone to diarrhea and constipation 3. makes transition to solid foods easier 4. breast milk cannot be contaminated
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breast feeding is the best way to ensure that babies get the nourishment they need - list benefits:
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first year
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american academy of pediatrics recommends that children be breast fed for the (blank) year, with iron-enriched solid foods introduced gradally
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true
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true or false: studies typically find that breast and bottle fed babies are similar in physical and psychological development
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see pg. 92
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by 2 years, growth slows and so children need less to eat - this is also a time when many children become picky eaters (see pg. 92)
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malnourished
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being small for one's age because of inadequate nutrition
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1 in 4
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worldwide about (# in #) children under age 5 is malnourished - many are from third world countries
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10%
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(#) percent of american households do not have adequate food
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f.y.i
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malnutrition during rapid periods of growht in infancy damages the brain, affecting a childs abilities to pay attention and learn
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f.y.i.
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programs that combine dietary supplements with parent training offer promise in trating malnutrition
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neuron
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basic cellular unit of the brain and nervous system that specializes in receiving and transmitting information
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cell body
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center of the neuron the keeps that neuron alive
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dendrite
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end of the neuron that recieves information; it looks like a tree with many branches
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axon
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tubelike structure that emerges from the cell body and transmits information to other neurons
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terminal buttons
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small knobs at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters
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neurotransmitters
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chemicals released by the terminal buttons that allow neurons to communicate with each other
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cerebral cortex
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wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many functions that are distinctly human
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hemispheres
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right and left halves of the cortex
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corpus callosum
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thick bundel of neurons that connects the two hemispheres
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frontal cortex
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brain region that regulates personality and goal-directed behavior
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3 quarters of a pound 80%
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brain weighs (#) at birth (roughly 25% of the weight of an adult brain) brain grows rapidly, but age 3 the brain has achieved (#) percent of its ultimate weight
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neural plate
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beginnings of the brain can be traced to the period of the zygote - at roughly 3 weeks after conception, a group of cells form a flat structure known as the (blank). at 4 weeks it folds to form a tub that ultimately becomes the brain and spinal cord.
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10 weeks - 28 weeks
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production of neurons begins about (#) weeks after conception, and by (#) weeks the developing brain has virtually all the neurons it will ever have! during these weeks, neurons form at the rate of more than 4000 per second
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7
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brain is built in stages, beginning with the innermost layers - layering process continues until all six layers of the brain are in place, which occurs about (#) months after conception
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myelin
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fatty sheath that wraps around neurons and enables them to transmit informaiton more rapidly
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4th
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in the (#) month of prenatal development, axons begin to acquire myelin
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sensory - cortex
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neurons that carry (blank) information are the first to acquire myelin - neurons in the (blank) are among the last
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first birthday
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number of synapses peaks around the (blank) birthday - soon after they begin to disappear gradually
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synaptic pruning
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gradual reduction in the number of synapses, beginning in infancy and continuing until early adolescences
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sensory and motor functions - basic language and spatial skills - attention and planning
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pruning is completed first for brain regions associated with (blank and (blank) functions. regions associated with (blank) and (blank) are completed next, followed by regions associated with (blank) and (blank)
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electroencephalography
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the study of brain waves recorded from electrodes that are palced on the scalp
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functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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method of studying brain activity by using magnetic fields to track blood flow in the brain
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1. specialization is early in development 2. specialization takes two specific forms 3. different brain systems specialze at different rates 4. successful specialization requires stimulation from the environement 5. the immature brain's lack of specialization confers a benefit - greater plasticity
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give 5 general principles that describe the brains specialization as children development: (see pgs 96-97 for further descriptions)
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experience-expectant growth
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process by which the wiring of the brain is organized by experiences that are common to most humans
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experience-dependent growth
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process by which an individuals unique experiences over a lifetime affact brain structures and organization
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f.y.i.
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young children often recoer more skills after brain injury than older children and adults, apparently because functions are more easily reassigned in the young brain
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motor skills
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coordinated movemenets of the muscles and limbs
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locomote
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ability to move around in the world
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fine motor skills
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motor skills associated with grasping, holding, and manipulating objects
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toddling
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early, unsteady form of walking done by infants
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toddlers
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young children who have just learned to walk
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1 month
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chin up =
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2 months
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chest up =
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3 months
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reach and miss =
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4 months
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sit with support =
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5 months
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sit on lap; grasp object =
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6 months
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sit on high chair; grasp dangling object =
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7 months
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sit alone =
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8 months
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stand with help =
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9 months
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stand holding furniture =
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10 months
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creep =
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11 months
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walk when led =
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12 months
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pull to stand by furniture =
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13 months
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climb stair steps =
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14 months
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stand alone =
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15 months
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walk alone =
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dynamic systems theory
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theory that views motor development as involing many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet specific needs
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visual cues and an inner-ear mechanisms
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by a few months after birth, infants begin to use (blank) and an (blank) mechanism to adjust their posture
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true
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true or false: balance is not something that infants master just once
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f.y.i.
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children dont step spontaneously until approx. 10 months because they must be able to stand in order to step
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perceptual cues
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infants use (blank) cues to decide whether a surface is safe for walking
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differentiation and integration
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mastery of intricate motions requires both (blank) and (blank)
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differentiation
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distinguishing and mastering individual motions
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integration
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linking individual motions into a coherent, coordinated whole
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"hurried walk"
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most 2 year olds have a "(blank)" instead of a true run
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4 months
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at about (#) months infants can successfully reach for objects (they only use their fingers to hold objects)
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7 or 8 months
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not until (# or #) months do most infants use their thumbs to hold objects
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5 to 6 months
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at roughly (# to #) months, infants can coordinate the motions of their hands so that each hand performs different actions that serve a common goal
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buttons tying shoes
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a 2 or 3 year old can put on some simple clothing and use zippers but not (blank); by 3 or 4 years, children can fasten buttons and take off their clothes when going to the bathroom; and most 5 year olds can dress and undress themselves - except for (blank), which children typically master at about age 6
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f.y.i
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by the first birthday, most children are emergent right handers - some scientists believe that a gene biases children toward right-handedness (experience also contributes)
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perception
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processes by which the brain recieves, selects, modifies, and organizes incoming nerve impulses that are the result of physical stimulation
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f.y.i.
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newborns have a keen sense of smell and also recognize familiar odors also have a highly developed sense of taste also sensitive to touch
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human speech
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infants best hear sounds that have pitches in the range of...
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true
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true or false: infants can differentiate speech sounds, such as vowels from consonant sounds
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4 or 5 months
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by (# or #) months, babies can recognize their own names
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f.y.i.
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babies can distinguish different musical sounds and can remember lullabies - they are senstivie to the rhythmic structure of music
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visual acuity
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smallest pattern that one can distinguish reliably
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first birthday
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by what time is an infant's acuity essentially the same as that of an adult with normal vision?
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3
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by (#) months the three kinds of cones are working and infants are able to see the full range of colors
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3 to 4 months
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by (# to #) months, infants color perception seems similar to that of adults
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crawl
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infants can percieve depth by the time they are old enough to...
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1. kinetic cues 2. visual expansion 3. motion parallax 4. retinal disparity
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how do infants infer depth? - they use several kinds of cues, name the four:
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kinetic cues
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cues to depth perception in which motion is used to estimate depth
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visual expansion
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kinetic cue to depth perception that is based on the fact that an obkect fills an ever-greater proportion of the retina as it moves closer
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motion parallax
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kinetic cue to depth perception nased on the fact that nerby moving objects move across our visual field faster than do distant objects
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retinal disparity
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way of inferring depth based on differences in the retinal images in the left and right eyes
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kinetic cues, visual expansion, motion parallax
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which cues do babies use to infer depth in the first weeks after birth:?
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retinal disparity
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which cue do babies use to infer depth after about 4 to 6 months of age?
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pictorial cues 1. linear perspective 2. texture gradient
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by 7 months, infants use several cues for depth that depend on the arrangement of objects in the environment - these are sometimes called (blank) because they're the same cues that artists use to convey depth in drawings and paintings two examples are:
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linear perspective
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a cue to depth perception based on the fact that parallel lines come together at a single point in the distance
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texture gradient
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perceptual cue to depth based on the fact that the texture of objects changes from coarse and distinct for nearby objects to finer and less distinct for distant objects
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1. motion: elements that move together are usually part of the same object 2. color 3. texture 4. aligned edges
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by 4 months, infants use a number of cues to determine which elements go together to form objects: (4 things)
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facelike - newborns turn their eyes to follow a moving face more than they turn their eyes for nonface stimuli, howwever, preference for tracking a moving face changes abruptly at about 4 weeks of age (infants now track all moving stimuli)
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babies are innately attrached to stimuli that are...
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7 or 8 months
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by (# or #) months, infatns process faces in much the same way that adults do; as a cofiguration in which the internal elements are arranged and spaced in a unique way
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f.y.i.
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through the first 6 months after birth, infants have a very general prototype for a face- between 6 and 12 months of age, infants fine-tune their prototype of a face so that it reflects those kinds of faces that are familiar in their environment
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true
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true or false: infants can recognize visually an object that they have only touched previously
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intersensory redundancy (see pg. 113)
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infatns' sensory systems are attuned to information presented simultaneously to differenct sensory modes
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1 year olds 15 months 2 years
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mirror test - sense of self: (#) year olds touch the red mark on the mirror by (#) months, however, babies touch their own nose by (#) years virtually all babies do this
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18 and 24 months- at this time toddlers look more at pictures of themselves and refer to themselves by name or with a personal pronoun - sometimes also know their age and gender self-awareness well established by age 2
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self-awareness emerges between (#) and (#) months
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conversations with parents about the past and the future
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awareness of a self that is extended in time is fostered by...
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ownership
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awareness of a self extended in time is also revealed by their understanding of...
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physical characteristics preferences competencies
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preschoolers usually mention what 3 things when descibing themselves?
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intentional
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infants understand that people's behavior is often...
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theory of mind
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ideas about connections between thoughts, beliefs, intentions, and behavior that create an intuitive understanding of the link between mind and behavior
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2 and 5 years
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between (# and #) years, children develop a theory of mind
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1. 2 years old: aware of desires (link desires to behavior) 2. 3 years old: distinguish the mental world from the physical world (have some understanding of different mental states) 3. 4 years old: understand that behavior is often based on a persons beliefs about evemts and situations even when those beliefss are wrong
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henry wellman believes that childrens theory of mind move through three phases during the preschool years:
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3 and a half years old
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before (#) years olf, children typically make the false-belief error
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1. become intensely interested in objects 2. seem unintersted in other people 3. social exchanges are awkward 4. grasp false belief very slowly 5. absenec of a theory of mind "mindblindness" defining characteristic
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autism is the most serious of a family of disorders known as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - individuals with ASD acuire language later than usual and their speech often echos what others say to them; list some other characteristics:
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18 to 24 months 200-300 U.S. kids are diagnosed 80% are boys ASD is heritable
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symptoms of ASD emerge by (# to #) months of age
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scheme during infancy most are based on actions
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according to piaget, a mental structure that orgaizes information and regulates behavior
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assimilation
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according to piaget, taking in information that is compatible with what one already knows new experiences are readily incorporated into existing schemes
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accommodation
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according to piaget, changing existing knowledge based on new knowledge occurs when schemes are modified based on experience
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equilibration
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according to piaget, a process by which children recognize their schemes to return to a state of equilbrium when disequilbrium occurs
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1. sensorimotor period (0 - 2 years) 2. preoperational period (2 - 7 years) 3. concrete operational period (7 - 11 years) 4. formal operational period (11 years and up) children go through all these stages in sequence
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name piaget's 4 stages to cognitive development:
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1. adapting to and exploring the environment 2. understanding objects 3. using symbols
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what three characteristics make up the sensorimotor period?
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*1 and 4 months *8 months *12 months
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sensorimotor period: *between (# and #) months reflexes are first modified by experiences *at about (#) months, infatns reach a watershed: the onset of deliberate, intentional behavior - the first indication of purposeful, goal-directed behavior during infancy *(#) months become active experimenters
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*object permanence (piaget claimed that infants lacked this understanding for much of the first year) *4 to 8 month olds *8 months
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sensorimotor period: *(blank): understanding, acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently of oneself *(# to #) month olds will not search for an object that is covered by a cloth *by about (#) months infants will search for the hidden object
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18 months
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piaget argues that not until approx. (#) months do infants have full understanding of object permanence
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18 months
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by (#) months, infants begin to talk and gesture and engage in pretend play
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1. egocentrism 2. centration 3. animism 4. appearance as reality
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what are some characteristics of the preoperational period?
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egocentrism
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difficulty in seeing the world from another's point of viewl typical of children in the preoperational period
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animism
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crediting inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties such as feelings
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centration
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according to piaget, narrowly focused type of thought characteristic of preoperational children
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is really like confuse appearance and reality
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final feature of preoperational thinking is that preschool children believe that an objects appearance tells what the object..
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1. infants and young children 2. adolescents 4. variability (cognitive development is nowhere near as stage like as piaget believes) 5. sociocultural
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although piaget;s contributions to child development are legendary, some elements of his theory have held up better than others: 1. his theory underestimates cognitive competence in (blank) and (blank) 2. overestimates cogntivive compenetnce in (blank) 3. theory is vague with respect to processes and mechanisms of change 4. piaget's stage mofel does not account for (blank) in children's performance 5. theory undervalues the influence of the (blank) environment on cognitive development
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core knowledge hypothesis physics, psychology, and biology
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infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world, which is elaborated based on experieces some of the theories young children first develop concern what three things?
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*4 and a half month olds *6 month olds *5 month olds
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naive physics: *(#) month olds consistently look longer at an unrealistic event than at a realistic event *(#) month olds are surprised when an object that realeased in midair doesn't fall, when an object remaind stationary after being hit, or when an object passes through another solid object *(#) month olds expect liquids but not solids to change their shape as they're moved from one container to another
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*12 to 15 months
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naive biology: *beings in infancy - distinguish animate objects from inanimate objects *by (# to #) months, babies have determinedd that animate objects are self-propelled, can move in irregular paths, and act to achieve goals
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1. movement 2. growth 3. internal parts 4. inheritance 5. illness 6. healing
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naive biology: mane 4 year olds theories of biology include the following elements: (6 things)
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teleological explanations
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children's belief that living things and parts of living things exist for a purpose
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essentialism
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childrens beliefs that all living things have an essence that can't be seen but gives a living thing its identity
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7 or 8 years
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not until (# or #) years of age do children decide that plants are alive as well
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mental hardware
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mental and neural structures that are built in and that allow the mind to operate
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mental software
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mental "programs: that are the basis for performing particular tasks
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attnetion
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processes that determine which information will be processed further by an individual
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orienting response
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an individual views a strong or unfamiliar stimulus, and changes in heart rate and brain-wave activity occur
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habituation
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becoming unresponsive to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly
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1. habituation 2. classical conditioning 3. operant conditioning 4. imitation
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learning can take several forms, including: (4 things)
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classical conditioning
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a form of learning that involves pairing a neutal stimulus and a response orinially produced by another stimulus
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operant conditioning
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view of learning, proposed by skinner, that emphasizes reward and punishment
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true
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true or false: young babies remember events for days or even weeks at a time
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f.y.i.
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rovee-colliers experiements showt hat three important features of memory exist as early as 2 and 3 months of age: 1. an event from the past is remembered 2. over time, the event can be longer be recalled 3. a cue can serve to dredge up a memory that seems to have been forgotten
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6 months 2nd year
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brain structures primarily responsible for the intital storage of informaiton, including the hippocampus and amygdala, seem to develop very early - by age (#) months the structures responsible for retrieveing these stored memories, the preforntal cortex, develops much later - into the (#) year
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autobiographical memory emerges in the preschool years
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memories of the significant events and experiences of one's own life
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pg. 140-141
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preschoolers as eyewitnessess
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true
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true or false: basic number skills originate in infancy
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5 month olds
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research suggests that (#) month olds can distinguish two objects from three and three objects from four
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true
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true or false: young babies can perform simple addition and subtraction
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6 month olds
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infants can compare quantities - (#) month olds are sensitive to ratio
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2 years old
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by (#) years old, most babies know some number words and have begun to count
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1. one-to-one principle: there must be one and only one number name for each object that is counted 2. stable-order principle: number names must be counted in the same order 3. cardinality principle: the last number name differs from the previous ones in a counting sequence by denoting the number of objects
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by age 3, most children have mastered three basic principles of counting - at least when it comes to counting up to five objects
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4
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by age (#) most children know the numbers to 20 and some can count to 99
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lev vygotsky
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who believed the development is an apprenticeship in which children advance when they collaborate iwht other who are more skilled
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intersubjectivity
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mutal, shared understanding among participants in an activity - -part of lev vygotsky's theory
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guided participation
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childrens involvement in structured activities with othesr who are more skilled, typically producing cognitive growht -part of lev vygotsky's theory
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zone of proximal development
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difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone -part of lev vygotsky's theory
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scaffolding
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a style in which teachers gauge the amount of assistenace they offer to match the learner's needs -part of lev vygotsky's theory
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private speech
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a childs comments that are not intended for others but are designed instead to help regulate the childs own behavior
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inner speech
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vygotsky viewed private speech as an intermediate step toward self-regulation of cognitive skills as children gain ever greater skill, private speech becomes (blank), which was vygotsky's term for thought
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phonemes include consonant sounds and vowel sounds
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unique sounds used to create words; the basic building blocks of language
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as early as 1 month after birth
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when can infants begin to distinguish phonemes?
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f.y.i.
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research shows that infants can distinguish phonemes that are not used in their native language - newborns are biologically capable of hearing the entire range of phonemes in all language worldwide
question
f.y.i.
answer
when 7 to 8 month olds hear a word repeatedly in different sentenses, they later pay more attention to this word than to words they havent heard previously
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content words - function words
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6 month olds pay more attention to (blank) words (nouns, verbs) than to (blank) words (articles, prepositions)
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yes
answer
do 6 month olds look at the correct parent when they hear mommy or daddy?
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1. stressed syllables 2. statistical: notice syllables that go together frequently 3. through their emerging knowlege of how sounds are used in their native language 4. rely on familiar function words (a, the) 5. parents speaking in infant-directed speech
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in normal conversation, there are no silent gaps between words, so how to infants pick out words? (5 things)
question
stressed- unstressed
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infants pay more attention to (blank) syllables than (blank) syllables
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6 months
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by (#) months most infants recognize function words (a, the) and use them to determine the onset of a new word
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infant-directed speech; motherese
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speech the adults use with infatns that is slow and has exaggerated changes in pitch and volumes; it is thought to aid language acquisition
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cooing - 2 months
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early vowel-like sounds that babies produce at what age?
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babbling - 6 months
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speechlike sounds that consist of vowel-consonant combinations, common at about (#) months
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8 to 11 months
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at roughly (# to #) months, infants babbling sounds more like real speech because infants stress some syllables and vary the pitch of their speech
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10 to 14 months
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around (# to #) months, babies appear to understand what others say despite the fact that they have yet to speak
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1. mother and father 2. grettings 3. foods and toys
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a babies first word typically includes what types of words?
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f.y.i.
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by age 2 - vocab of a few hundred words by age 6 - vocan includes more than 10,000 words
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f.y.i.
answer
gestures are symbols and infants begin to gesture shortly before their first birthday - gestures sometimes pave the way for language
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naming explosion
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15 month old may learn two to three new words each week- 18 month olds experience a (blank) during which they learn new words much more rapidly - now learn ten or more words each week
question
fast mapping
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a childs connections between words and referents that are made so quickly that he or she cannot consider all possible meanings of the word
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1. joint attention 2. constraints on word names 3. sentence cues 4. cognitive factors 5. developmental change in word learning 6. naming errors
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researchers believe that many distinct factors contribute to young childrens rapid word learning: (6 things)
question
f.y.i.
answer
joint attention: 18 to 20 month olds assume that the label is the objects name only when adults show signs that they are referring to the object
question
1. if an unfamiliar word is heard in the presence of objects that already have names and object that dont, the word refers to one of the objects that doesnt have a name 2. a name refers to a whole object, not its parts; and it refers to all objects of the same type 3. if an object already has a name and another name is presented, the new name denotes a subcategory of the orginial name 4. given many similar category members, a word applied consistently to only one of them is a proper noun
answer
constraints on word names: how does a toddler know that banana refers to the obkect that shes touching as opposed to her activity (touching) or to the objects color? researchers believe that young children follow several simple rules:
question
f.y.i.
answer
sentence cues: children hear many unfamiliar words embedded in sentences containing words they already know - the other words and the overall sentence structure can be helpful clues to a words meaning
question
f.y.i.
answer
cognitive factors: naming explosion coincides with a time of rapid cognitive growth, and childrens increased cogitive skill helps them to learn new words with more experience, children derive an even more general rule: objects that have the same shape have the same name
question
attentional language
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developmental change in word learning: before 18 months, infants learn new words relatively slowly (often just one new word each day) and they rely heavily on simple (blank) processes to learn the new words by 24 months they learn many new words daily, which reflects children greater use of (blank) cues and a speakers social cues
question
*underextension *overextention (between 1 and 3 years)
answer
naming errors: *(blank): when children define words more narrowly than adults do *(blank): when childre define words more broadly than adults do
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producing - comprehending
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overextention error occurs more frequently when children are (blank) words than when they are (blank) words
question
14 months- 22 months
answer
naming explosion typically occurs around 18 months as early as (#) months for some - and as late as (#) for some
question
1. heredity 2. phonological memory 3. child's language environment
answer
what can account for childrens' differences in vocab size? (3 things)
question
phonological memory
answer
ability to remember speech sounds briefy; an important skills in acquiring vocab
question
f.y.i.
answer
when infants learn two languages simultaneously, they often progress somewhat slowly at first - soon, however, they separate the languages, and bilingual children reach most language milestones at about the same age as monolingual children
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1. better understand that words are simply arbitrary symbols 2. more skilled at switching back and forth between tasks and often are better able to inhibit inappropriate responses
answer
in what ways are bilingual children more skilled?
question
*referential style *expressive style
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as children expand their vocab, they often adopt a distinct style of learning languauge: *some children have a (blank) style: their vocab mainly consist of words that name objects, persons, or actions *other children have an (blank) style: they vocab include some names but also many socil phrases that are used like a single word
question
yes for preschoolers but no for infants under 18 months
answer
do videos help children learn words?
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3 year olds
answer
sentences with 10 or more words are common in (#) year olds speech
question
telegraphic speech
answer
speech used by young childrent hat contains only the words necessary to convey a message
question
grammetical morphemes preschool children gradually acquire these
answer
words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical
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overregularization
answer
grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule
question
1. behaviorist approach: children imitate the grammatical forms they hear 2. linguistic approach: believe children are born with mechanisms that simplfy the task of learning grammar 3. cognitive approach: believe children learn grammar through powerful cognitive skills that help them rapidly detet regularities in their environment 4. social-interaction approach: draws on each of the views - emphasizes that much language learning takes place in the context of interactions between children and adults
answer
how do children acquire grammar? - theoriests have proposed several different answers to this question:
question
3 years old
answer
by (#) years old, children will repeat his or her remark to elicit a response if the listener failed to respond intitially
question
see page 162
answer
major milestones of language development: see table 4.2 pg. 162
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