hist109 – Flashcard

Horses replaced oxen (600 - 1000) it made costs go down b/c horses were cheaper in transporting goods could transport food and products faster, further Horses were bred for specific purposes, i.e. war, riding, working Iron horse shoe allowed for horses to have better traction for working in fields and war and stuff the shift to horses allowed for larger villages because of the larger "radius" horses could work. Heavy plow (600 - 1000) No irrigation technology was needed b/c there is lots of rain in Europe allowed farmers to farm tougher soil New lands were able to be farmed northward migration of people and agriculture collective ownership heavy plow needed many oxen; so peasants pulled together to use the heavy plow Collective ownership was the beginning of centralized societies i.e. manorial system/feudalism Surplus of crops population increase because of surplus goods Increase from 26 mil - 78 mil by 1300 (starting from 600) allowed craftsman to specialize (work was paid with surplus) 3 crop rotation system (600 - 1000) Reduced risk of crop failure and famine b/c of availability of year-round crops allowed for excess oats and grain to be cultivated--> fed to horses! So, the plow led to 3-field rotation, led to more horses! led to better health b/c of diversified diets population increased as a result Winter: Wheat Fallow: nothing is growing (the field is left empty in order to regain fertility) ←- what does that mean (as crops are removed, all the nutrients that the crop absorbed from the soil is remove, so it is better to leave the field empty and let time restore its fertility ( Nutrient bacteria enrich soil with nitrogen hence left fallow to recover, otherwise nothing will grow due to lack of Nitrogen)) Spring: Oats,peas,beans,barley, lentil (I don't think the following information is relevant) Stirrup less than 700 Revolutionized warfare--> "mounted shock combat" shoot a bow and arrow from horseback along with swing a sword no dismount Allowed heavier loads to be carried--> fully-armored knights So, more knights could be made Knights did not have land Local lord funded the knight through taxes surplus from agriculture paid for knights Decentralized government Key Concepts: Surplus in goods led to increase population led to feudalism So, more buildings, cathedrals, centralized populations, etc.

-Windmill and watermills were developed in order to perform tasks which animals would do. They were also used to grind grains into flour. - the implementation of technology can be attributed to the lack of manpower -Printing - before the monks have to hand copy Aristotle/textbook lead to cheaper to learn and directly lead to scientific revolution. - "Slaves withered away in western Europe coincident with the advent of labor-saving machines"

With the expansion of knowledge and the educational reform, the first universities of Europe were established. They were modeled after the craft guilds of medieval Europe. Universities did not depend on state or individual patronage like the scribal schools of antiquity or the Islamic madrasa. Against the background of weekly organized learning in the early Middle Ages, the appearance of the European university in the twelfth century and its rapid spread across Europe mark an institutional watershed in the history of science and learning. Instruction in medicine arose in the independent principality of Salerno in Italy in the ninth century, but the union of students and faculty that developed at Bologna usually ranks as the first university in Europe. The University of Paris followed by 1200, Oxford by 1220, and perhaps eighty additional universities appeared by 1500. The rise of the European university coincided with burgeoning cities and growing wealth made possible by the Agricultural Revolution, for universities were decidedly urban institutions, not rural like the monasteries, and they depended (and depend) on an idle student body with the means to pay for and the job prospects to justify attending universities. Madrasa had no standard curriculum, no degrees given, and not self governing. (pg. 107) Madrasa: only "fundamental tenets of Islam" were taught (pg.107) Madrasa assembled individual scholars, who studied on an individual basis. Instructors emphasize memorization, recitation, mastery of authoritative texts. University: " functioned mainly to train the clergy, doctors, lawyers, administrators, and teachers increasingly required to run the affairs of the state, the church, and the private sector as Europe in the Middle Ages continued to flourish." (pg. 183) Seven Liberal Arts ( grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy)

If the twelfth century was a period of translation, the thirteenth represents a period of assimilation wherein the learned of Europe began to absorb the scientific and philosophical traditions of antiquity and medieval Islam. Much of the process of assimilation amounted to attempts to reconcile a traditional Christian worldview with Aristotle and other pagan Greek traditions. The great intellectual synthesis of Thomas Aquinas (1224-74) in large measure completed this process of assimilation. Whether Aquinas Christianized Aristotle or aristotelianized Christianity, or both, matters little, for one way or another Aristotle came to provide a complete intellectual system upon which medieval scholastics raised the edifice of rational thought about God, man, and nature. Aristotle's logic and analytical categories became virtually the exclusive conceptual means of investigating any subject. The elaboration and defense of Aristotle's works became a mission of the universities, and the resulting intellectual amalgam of Christian theology and Aristotelian science produced a coherent and unified vision of the world and humanity's place in it. Secular natural science took second place whenever Aristotelian natural philosophy clashed with traditional Christian theology.

The bishop of Paris with the backing of the pope condemned the teaching of 219 execrable errors held by some Aristotelians and subjected anyone who held or taught them to excommunication. liberated them to conceive new alternatives in solving long-standing problems in Aristotelian science and natural philosophy. produced a paradoxical effect... a path opened for masters in the arts faculty to consider any and all scientific possibilities as long as they stayed out of theology and did not claim that their intellectual games had any necessary relation to the world as God's artifact. Buridan and Oresme both entertained the idea of the daily rotation of earth on its axis, but both rejected the idea - Oresme rejected it because of apparent conflicts with passages in the bible

During the Military Revolution tax revenues in western Europe had doubled, more gunpowder was in demand, and more gunmen were being trained. Expenses in the military had also risen. The musket was introduced in the 1550s with coordinated routines of loading and firing. As the military technology had changed old weapons such as bows, crossbows, broadswords, and pikes had become obsolete. Guns became the main prowess in battle. The substantial government assistance and intervention required by this historically unique military technology led European societies toward centralized authority. From the fifteenth century onward, the creation of national armies and royal navies resulted in political centralization. Competition was on the rise between the nations of Europe. These technological advancements allowed for more "modern" nations to gain control of less "modern" nations

He solved the problem of retrograde motion and the different seasons that we have. Planets, including the earth are rotating in a circular motion. He solved the problem of diurnal motion of the celestial sphere. The earth not only moves around the Sun but on its axis. He solved the problem of seasons, and the way celestial motion happens. The axis of the earth is not perpendicular to the plane of the Solar System.

Hermetic corpus: linked the microcosm of the human body with the macrocosm of the whole universe as a whole through a system of occult correspondences and relations of "sympathy" and "antipathy. The world took on an emblematic quality, replete with hidden meanings, associations, and occult symbolism. Hermeticism affirmed the magical power of an enlightened magician or magus to change the course of nature. Hermeticism saw a transcendental, divine order in nature framed by underlying mathematical realities, and held the optimistic vision that humans could both understand nature and through technology of magic, operate upon it in their own interests. → characteristics align Renaissance magic with same individuals/historical forces that gave rise to Scientific Revolution. Hermetic basic assumptions: 1. Four basic elements: earth, water, fire, and air 2. As above, so below: The law of attraction is the law of creation. Everything that is coming into your life is because you are attracted to it and allows it to happen. 3. Posthumous Fate: Multiple occurrences of being through manifestation before a person is liberated from any condition ( Kind of like karma? Some one please double check)<<<----i think it means more of SIGNS happen before stuff happens. ie. super nova happened hence something big is going to happen.. not like karma 4. Morality, good and evil 5. Cosmogony: the origin of the universe ( the world and humans are created by god/gods/supreme beings) The occult sciences of the Renaissance included astrology, alchemy, demonology, divination, magic, Neoplatonism, Rosicrucianism (which involved secret societies and occult symbols), and the Cabala (concerning secret mysteries in the Bible). The range of magical activities varied considerably in the early modern period, from proscribed contact with the forces of evil through black magic to "natural" or "mathematical" magic, which had to do with remarkable machines or technical processes (such as burning mirrors or magnets) that produced astounding effects. Despite our prejudices against magic and the occult as irrational delusion and charlatanry, at its highest levels Renaissance magic and associated knowledge systems were serious spiritual and intellectual enterprises that embodied learned understanding of the natural world. The very notion of the occult involved a dual meaning, both as secrets shared among adepts and as secrets hidden in nature. These occult sciences accidently led to many scientific discoveries and since these sciences were mainly experimental, people believing they can learn everything about the universe and change it, they created tools for later scientists to use for their discoveries and they also gave general concepts that needed explaining.

Newton's major works consists of "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" and "Opticks" written in 1687 and 1704 respectively. Through his work Newton presented a theoretical inquiry into cosmetology and underlying physics of the world. Newton affirmed the laws of motion and linked them with Kepler's laws of planetary motion showing that the movements of heavenly bodies were related to terrestrial physics. Also, his work on optics helped clarify long term misconceptions about the properties of light. In Principia Newton presented universal gravitation and the laws of motion. Universal gravitation states that every particle of matter attracts other particles with a force proportional to the product of two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Through this theory the observed structure of the solar system was perfectly explained by assuming that the major organizing force among planets was gravity. In order to apply the theory of universal gravitation to planets with curved paths through space, Newton built upon the contributions of earlier mathematicians and developed calculus. Next, in the laws of motion, Newton explained that every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it. Through Newtonian physics, elliptical paths of planets were explained, return of comets were predicted and many other discoveries were made displays the power of classical sciences and accelerating their advancement. Newton also contributed to our understanding of light through his experiments. He discovered that light is composed of rays which can be refracted to different degrees through lenses and prisms. Each ray corresponds to a different color and white light represents the combination of all rays and colors. This work in optics provided the conceptual umbrella beneath which the Baconian sciences developed in the eighteenth century. His work in Optiks also laid the groundwork for other scientists to discover spectrums of light outside what we are able to see.

Claims to the social utility of science began to be asserted a conviction of science can promote human welfare and should be encouraged Bacon and Descartes were major proponents of the social utility of science In 1662 The Royal Society of London was established It was important because it was the first institution where scientists could share and publish their findings with each other. The Philosophical Transaction journal provided a new mode of communicating and disseminating scientific knowledge and research In 1666 The Paris Academy of Sciences was established important because it allowed further publishing and sharing of scientific findings Journal des Scavans provided a new mode of communicating and disseminating scientific knowledge and research First institutions dedicated to the study of the sciences (London then Paris) New institutional base for science and scientists The model for a society or academy of science was established and as a result new institutions arose throughout Europe of similar fashion These institutions were created and maintained by nation-states and ruling governments received official charter as legal institution and permanent corporations (separated from royal households) Newton became president of the Royal Society of London in 1703. (not 17th century?)

discusses the spectrum of light (prisms) In this book Newton sets forth in full his experiments, first reported to the Royal Academy of London in 1672 on dispersion, or the separation of light into a spectrum of its component colours. He demonstrates how the appearance of color arises from selective absorption, reflection, or transmission of the various component parts of the incident light. The major significance of Newton's work is that it overturned the dogma, attributed to Aristotle or Theophrastus and accepted by scholars in Newton's time, that "pure" light (such as the light attributed to the Sun) is fundamentally white or colorless, and is altered into color by mixture with darkness caused by interactions with matter. Newton showed just the opposite was true: light is composed of different spectral hues (he describes seven — red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet), and all colors, including white, are formed by various mixtures of these hues. He demonstrates that color arises from a physical property of light — each hue is refracted at a characteristic angle by a prism or lens — but he clearly states that color is a sensation within the mind and not an inherent property of material objects or of light itself. chromatic aberration reflection telescope In regard to ether, "[Newton] retreated from the idea of atoms... and instead deployed.. self-repulsive aethers to account for optical phenomena, gravity, electricity, magnetism, heat, and physiology" p.264 Newton's Opticks (1704), provided the conceptual umbrella beneath which the Baconian sciences developed in the eighteenth century

The first steam engine design (by Thomas Newcomen, 1712) was designed using a cold water injection which injected water to retract the piston. which was not very efficient, which only made it feasible where coal was cheap. The second iteration (by James Watt) had a separate tank to hold heat which was still cooler which was used to retract the piston which increased the engines efficiency. these engines were very large which gave them the name of stationary engines. additionally the steam engines used atmospheric pressure bring the piston back down to where it could be fired thusly they needed to be in a place of constant pressure and were not efficient and could only fit on boats and/or in factories. In 1800, Richard Trevithick used higher pressure instead of atmospheric pressure which allowed the steam engine to be smaller and fit on locomotives. George Stephensen was the first to do this.. first steam engines were very inefficient. Rather than being a solution to the high price of coal, they used so much coal that it became more expensive to use them than the coal itself. At first a pointless financial failure however after improvement it finally served its purpose.

It drove companies to improve and make industrial products more efficient. There were folks that were driven to improving communication amongst other societies. Shift from agriculture and trade to mechanization of production New factory system Global market system to support industrial production Family ceased to be the central unit of production Restriction of union activities Urbanization The idea that one nation could own another for the sole purpose of gaining resources emerged (all of the following bulletins are from page 288, last paragraph) before industrialization, state-controlled economy, restricted free trade free market, laissez-faire, emerged 1776, Wealth of the Nations by Adam Smith, new ideology of marketplace 1867, Das Kapital, Karl Marx - predicts owners of factories exploiting labor, and class warfare landowning aristocracy vs merchant capitalist = transition from feudalism to capitalism Romantic Movement: art focuses on simplicity of nature/family in response to industrialism

The "Classical sciences," includes astronomy, mechanics, mathematics, and optics. These fields originated in antiquity; they matured as research endeavors in the ancient world; and they were, in fact, the sciences revolutionized in the Scientific Revolution. theory- dependent and more mathematical the "Baconian sciences," developed parallel to but largely separate from the Classical sciences during and after the Scientific Revolution. The name derives from the style of science advocated by Sir Frances Bacon. more qualitative in character and experimental in approach they therefore depended on instruments to a much greater degree than their Classical counterparts. The Baconian approach was more empirical and only loosely guided by theory.

Phlogistin - fire-like element. Phlogistin was used to explain everything before the chemical revolution, such as combustion, plant growth, smelting, etc. (p.300) ex) candle releases phlogistin, and it goes out in a jar because air becomes saturated with phlogistin after "fixed air" discovery, phlogistin theory has anomalies and eventually is completely forgotten about Joseph Black discovered "fixed air" or what we know as carbon dioxide breaking down the traditional notion of air as one element Antoine Lavoisier theorized that in combustion something 'oxygen' comes out of the air not phlogiston going into it. this allowed for the measure of the inputs and outputs of flame Lavoisier created language that reflected the realities of different elements and compounds and with his publication of Elementary Treatise of Chemistry all new of the new chemists learned the language of Lavoisier and not that of previous generations

1mathematization of the previously more qualitative Baconian sciences and the theoretical and conceptual unification of the Classical and Baconian sciences. the first scientific revolution consisted of mostly of quantifying and reinventing the classical sciences and breaking the barriers that stood in the way of research while also inventing the Baconian sciences. At this point the Classical sciences were quantified and new mathematics were designed around these sciences, while Baconian sciences were merely qualitative meaning that they were experimented on and observed but not seen as pure sciences and thusly it was not a priority to explain what was happening in the experiments. In the second scientific revolution the classical sciences and the baconian sciences were brought together and the baconian sciences were then quantified using new instruments and mathematics designed around them and breaking down the barrier between classical science and baconian science. "a single set of universal laws and a powerfully coherent scientific world picture began to emerge" p.302. Many different fields, such as studies in electricity, magnetism, and chemistry, began to bridge together (examples in question 18 are good)

the second scientific revolution began at the turn of the 19th century mathematization of the previously qualitative Baconian sciences unification of Classical and Baconian sciences Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) discovered electric current through frog legs (aetherial animal electricity) (too early?) 1800: Alessandro Volta published his invention of the battery 1820: Hans Christian Oersted discovered that magnetism is perpendicular to electricity 1831: Michael Faraday created current by moving a magnet through a wire coil 1820s: Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered thermoelectricity Robert Grove discovered photoelectricity shortly afterwards These discoveries raised hard questions that could only be answered quantitatively Electromagnetic Induction Theory

page 305-306 In 1824 Sadi Carnot (1796-1832 )- Carnot analyzed the workings of the steam engine and elaborated what we know as the Carnot cycle, which describes what happens in the cylinders of all heat engines thermodynamics, which unified the sciences of heat and motion. first law of thermo- the conservation of energy—the principle that the various forces of nature can change from one form to another and that an indestructible entity called energy is conserved in the transformations •Prescott Joule (1818-89) worked out the mechanical equivalent of heat . German physicist Rudolf Clausius(1822-88 ) formulated the second law of thermodynamics--- This law concerns the behavior of energy over time; The second law implies that energy, like water, naturally "runs downhill" and that, without additional work, reactions are not naturally reversible. (formally, ∆s ≥ 0) third law: entropy of a perfect crystal at 0K is 0

Galileo was the first scientist to truly break through the barriers of Aristotelian societies. he said that we need to interpret the Bible in a way that fits closer to what is observable and true as opposed to ignoring what is truly happening. Galileo also laid the groundwork for other scientists such as Newton to test and formulate new ways of explaining behavior, for example his ideas of relative motion lead Newton to his formulas of gravity and motion

Physical resources shifted from wind, wood, and water to iron coal and steam Building materials went from wood to iron steel allowed for larger ships that were better defended in times of war and allowed industrious nations to colonize weaker nations building of railroads New foreign markets were needed, such as China power went from animals to machines in the form of the steam engine which allowed for more resources to be harvested and transported while also allowing for better travel.

Strength of materials Motion of bodies laid the principles for other scientists such as Newton and Halley brought the ideas to light that motion can and should be measured About how beams break and how balls roll down inclined planes (p. 234-235) Written in "dialogue form" split into 4 days with three voices of reason (salviati, sagredo, simplicio) Day 1: Cohesion of bodies, breaking strength of materials. Theory of scaling (ex. a wooden boat weighing a million tons), nature of fluids, etc Day 2: Strength of the beam is proportional to the square of the cross sectional depth Day 3 + 4: The rate at which a body falls is proportional to its weight. This totally re-conceptualizes Aristotle physics, which the medium through which bodies fall matters. Lead to Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment Velocity is proportional to the time elapsed. Galileo's law of falling bodies: distance a body falls is proportional to square of time of the fall. All objects fall at the same accelerated rate in a vacuum Kinematic law: describes a motion, does NOT explain it

- Smelting wrought iron and later Steel ie building ships from iron vs wood etc.. - Electricity..thomas edison...telephone vs telegraph. - Aviation 1903 The new nineteenth-century science of current electricity spawned several new applied-science industries, of which the telegraph represents a prime example. Following the discovery of electromagnetic induction by Michael Faraday in 1831, the scientist Charles Wheatstone and a collaborator invented the first electric telegraph in 1837. The telephone was a potent new technological system that emerged out of this same complex of science and industry. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876, but it took some time before telephone challenged the telegraph as an effective communications medium. Such an industry clearly derived from prior work in the new science of electricity. As celebrated in traditional biographies of great inventors, Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) in New Jersey and Joseph Swan (1828-1914) in England independently created the incandescent light bulb through elaborate empirical trials in 1879. The growth of applied science in the nineteenth century was not limited to physics or industries connected solely to the physical sciences. In the realm of scientific medicine, for example, the introduction in the 1840s of anesthesia in dentistry and surgery, and the antiseptic measures developed in the 1860s by Joseph Lister (1827-1912) proved boons for humanity. The germ theory of disease and ideas about microbes in the 1850s led the great French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822- 95) to his studies of fermentation. The resulting process of pasteurization produced practical and economically important consequences for a variety of industries, including dairy, wine, vinegar, and beer production. Related work on silkworm diseases produced similar effects for the silk industry, and Pasteur's later medical experiments to develop inoculations against anthrax, rabies, and other diseases represent the advent of a truly scientific medicine. Chemistry was another a domain where important practical applications in nineteenth-century industry were forthcoming from science. Through the middle of the century the dye industry in Europe remained a traditional craft activity with no contact whatsoever with the world of science. Then, in 1856, following some German advances in organic chemistry, the English chemist William Perkin discovered an artificial dye producing a purple color. Importance of science in context of German education grew further as connections to technology and industry developed notably in chemical industry, electrotechnology, and precision optics. ● The telegraph line helped establish communication. This was possible because of the science of current electricity. It Followed the discovery of electromagnetic induction by Faraday. Charles Wheatstone invented the 1st electric telegraph in 1837. London and Paris became connected by telegraph. ● Electric lighting industry was derived from prior work in the new science of electricity. Created the incandescent light bulb through elaborate empirical trials. A large and complex technological system had to be brought into being before an electric lighting industry could have existed. ● Radio communications (Hertz demonstrated reality of radio waves). Used 19th century theoretical and experimental physics and Marconi exploited them for practical wireless telegraphy. ● Automobile Industry: ford built his first automobile in 1893 and founded the Ford Motor Company a decade later. Cars were made and then changed the outlook on life The steam engine The discovery of neutrons and protons and electrons allowed for nuclear power (does this qualify as early 20th?) Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect circa 1920s, paved the way for LEDs(brighter more efficient light), lasers(communications, precision cutting for metal industry or eye surgery), infrared sensors(motion detection), solar panels(renewable energy)etc. found in almost every modern day system electricity became an integral part of daily lives with Edison's invention of the light bulb having electricity in the house became necessary and through scientific innovation a way of getting electricity to consumers and measuring their usage for billing purposes was invented. with the invention of the telegraph and later the telephone the scientific discoveries of electromagnetic induction and radio waves were now available for people to use and industry to profit from!

Economic effects: The automobile required and or created dozens of other industries such as the rubber industry to create tires. The chemical industry to create oil or engineer better oil and lubrications for the automobiles. Roads for the cars to drive on...Insurance requirements...Law enforcement to ensure everyone is driving their automobile correctly. Fastfood chains to feed hungry drivers. ... Social effects: It allowed transportation from city to city, state to state much more quickly. Previously, traveling took quite a while as one had to wait for train or bus. The automobile industry made it much more attractive for people to just get in their car and go. ... Cultural effects: The automobile industry along with many other consumer goods industries have their share of advertisements. Having a car is considered to be cool especially in the adolescent years. Also, the automobile industry has created car trends as well that still live on today. For example, there are automobiles trends from the 40's and 50's trucks to the 60's/70's muscle cars and even the 90's imports. ...

In his 1964 landmark work Understanding Media, the prescient theorist Marshall McLuhan articulated the concept of the "global village" from the means of electrical technology with television as the leading medium. Certainly no more powerful medium than television arose in the twentieth century for bringing peoples together. By creating a "you are there" feeling, television brings the world to viewers. The coverage of the moon landing in 1969 or the subsequent Apollo 13 disaster unified virtually all of humanity for a single moment. Thanks to communications satellites, every night on the nightly news, we see reporters live from hot spots around the world with video footage shot the same day. Sixteen hundred television stations currently broadcast United States, and with the advent of cable and satellite TV viewers have literally hundreds of channels to choose from, channels that cater to all kinds of tastes.: news, movies, business reporting, sports, weather, cartoons, children's subjects, music videos etc - The basic exchange of information from all corners of the world and the electrical technology that allows for this constant exposure is the idea behind the term of "global village", later referred to as the "Global Theater", which I will explain later. The start of this concept allowed many individuals to combine as a single mind and entity for a common goal and helped to educate individuals about anything that interested them; however, with every social change, there will be ulterior motives. With the constant exposure to information and the capability of the broadcaster to control the information, the "global village" meant to connect individuals on a global scale, started to shift to the potential of "global theater" where you put on a show to control what the individual sees. Either subtly, or openly, it is still a constant debate about whether the effect of this "theater" helps to foster cultural change, stunt change, control attitudes, and a plethora of other social structures.

Radioactivity-energies from matter, no idea why Photoelectric-sheds light on material, produces electricity Understanding of photoelectric kicked off the quantum revolution Black Body Radiation- how does it absorb & radiate energy -energy production & absorbed in packages, not a slope graph of energy, but a step graph -absorbed in specific amount(no 1.5 electrons) -learned about atomic structure & created electron energy levels

In the eighteenth century, astronomers had broached the idea that the Milky Way was an "island universe," 1920's American astronomer Edwin Hubble: extragalactic nature of "nebulous" bodies and the distances involved, and expansion of the universe became established. Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis debate AKA The Great Debate. Shapley- the milky way encompassed the entirety of the universe, Curtis-milky way was a part of many galaxies. 1930s, relativity and particle physics greatly affected cosmology. Einstein's equation of matter and energy, along with evolving understandings of nuclear processes, not only led to practical applications in the atomic and hydrogen bombs but also to theoretical understandings of thermonuclear fusion as the energy source powering the sun and the stars. The discovery of thermonuclear processes, by replacing ordinary combustion models, greatly extended the age of the sun and the solar system. Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson: 3° background radiation helped establish theory of the big bang. Won Nobel prize.

Einstein develops the energy equation E=mc^2 in 1905 Atomic science began with the experimentation and probing of into the nature of matter.. Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman made a discovery by mistake in Berlin on 1938. By continually bombarding different elements with neutrons, they found that Uranium reacted violently and broke into Barium and Krypton Isotopes, a number of neutrons, and massive amounts of energy: (process named fission). Question became "whether a chain reaction could occur within Uranium and if so, which isotope of Uranium would allow the reaction to most likely occur?" Answer: Uranium 235. Einstein communicates with President Roosevelt about the capability for the element Uranium to achieve a chain reaction that could release an enormous amount of energy. He also tells Roosevelt the capability of using this chain reaction to create an extremely powerful bomb could be possible. With Einstein's advice, Roosevelt organizes the National Defense Research Committee to speed the development of uranium research with government funding. Required unprecedented cooperation between scientists, industry, and military. Priorities: Isotope separation → problems: chemically and nearly physically identical Additionally, U-238 is much more natural than U-235 (99:1 ratio) Solutions: Electromagnetic Method → Oak Ridge, Manhattan Gaseous Diffusion → Clinton, Tennessee Additionally, Centrifuge & Liquid Thermal Diffusion Alternate Element Discovered: Plutonium (1941) - Glenn Seaborg (Berkley) → fissions more readily than U-235 First Bombs: Little Boy → Gun Barrel method (Uranium); Fat Man→ implosion fission bomb (plutonium) First Atomic Bombs: Hiroshima and Nagasaki of Japan → Lead to Unconditional Surrender Postwar Concerns: "Who should control science when scientific knowledge had become a weapon?" (Secrecy vs. Free Flow of Scientific Info) → Became: "How can we keep our monopoly on nuclear science?" Concerns about national security, who had control over scientific knowledge, and compromise between civilian and military use → May-Johnson Bill (atomic bomb=military); McMahon Bill (atomic energy=civilian) Didn't remain secret → Soviets eventually obtained technical know-how → Cold War Changed how national information and secrecy was conducted and held military knowledge to a new standard of protection.

Big Science projects: Manhattan Project, NASA. •Big Science becomes a major way to practice science during and after WWII Big Science is characterized by: •large-scale instruments and facilities •Government funding •Area of study deeply related to national interest (not only war-related field, but also that of health, such as stem cell researches, "applied science") •Mass production of scientific discoveries (= often takes place in industrialized nations) •Collaboration of specialized scientists from different fields

The Manhattan project was a research and development project for producing the first atomic bombs. It was led by the United States with the support of UK and Canada. It started with the Einstein's letter to Roosevelt. The letter states the discovery of the chain reaction and the possibility of releasing nuclear energy. The United States began the Manhattan project by further researching Uranium-235. They hoped Uranium-235 will serve as fuel source for an explosive device. There were three sites of research for the Manhattan project such Los Alamos - New Mexico, Oak Ridge- Tennessee and Richland Washington. These particular sites were chosen because they were far from the coastline and less vulnerable to enemy attack from Japan and Germany. The Manhattan projected consisted of a General Director and a Scientific Director. Groves served as general director and Oppenheimer served as scientific director. The Manhattan Project consisted of the development of the plutonium bomb known as "The gadget". The first explosion occurred at the Trinity site in Los Alamos. Further research eventually led to the creation of two the types of Atomic bombs. A gun-type atomic bomb known as " Little boy" was created and an implosion type atomic bomb known as "Fat Man" was created. The Manhattan project concluded with using little boy to bomb Hiroshima and Fat Man to bomb Nagasaki. This concluded World War II. Big science: Big facilities, lots of people, and all around was big... Words of the professor

Smyth report was the administrative report by Henry Smyth efforts to develop the atomic bomb, manhattan project. It served two functions: (1)serve as official US government statement and report of the development of the atomic bomb and the processes responsible for the functioning of the nuclear weapons. details of nuclear fission, uranium isotope enrichment, and plutonium production. (2) Serve as indicator for which info is still classified such as the US and Great Britain securing of 95% of Uranium reserves and the plutonium implosion detonator. The Symth report became public to provide citizens with enough information to understand atomic weapons and make sensible policy decisions regarding them. The soviets gained theoretical information from the Symth report, technical information from the spy ring, and acquire uranium from eastern europe which lead to detonation of their first atomic bomb on Aug 29, 1949

APL appeared under the direction of the OSRD at John Hopkins university . Its scientists designed the proximity fuse, a radio-controlled device that exploded shells at a predetermined distance from their targets, but also oversaw its production and taught the Navy how to use it. As the war wound down, the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance took over the contract from the OSRD and APL became the center of the Navy's efforts to develop guided anti aircraft missiles under the name Project Bumblebee. Administrators at John Hopkins had hesitations about nearly every aspect of the project from its classified character to its unabashedly "applied" nature of the research. Nevertheless, the university found the initial $750,000 contract difficult to refuse. After APL accepted the contract, it began working in the university setting with an industrial partner, Kellex Company. Things did not work out, their relationship never materialized. However, as a Navy contractor, the APL thrived as it contributed to the Polaris missile system, solid-rock fuels, and satellites. The role of the military in establishment of such institutes was that it made it easier for such institutes to exist. A major part of speeding up this process would be the funding that the military is able to provide. For example, today, the APL employs nearly 5,000 people and operates a nearly $1 billion budget supplied mainly by the DOD (DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, AKA A MILITARY/GOVERNMENT INSTITUTION). Also as stated by Wolfe, it was less successful as an academic institution as unclassified research received approximately 5 percent of the overall budget. The role of the military is that it is able to classify institutions as part of military spending from which that institution has a much higher budget from which it can do things much faster. [Work (Money = time)] (inverse relationship?) //A federal sponsor usually a defense agency, paid all costs and established programmatic goals while the university provided management services but had few expectations that the unit would perform in an academic context. It is also important to note: APL was more than twenty miles from John hopkins University, I operated at a physical remove from its administrative sponsor. Similar arrangements prevailed at MIT, Stanford, Caltech, Cornell and the University of Michigan to name a few.

Security Rules for institutions with defense contracts security clearances classification codes compartmentalization of knowledge Affected scientific research and copulation kept in dark about spending priorities and foreign policy Classified 7.5 billion pages in the 50 years after ww11 All information related to nuclear technology was born secret Even knowledge about the practice of science and for reasons behind government interest in scientific information. -scientists who did not approve of building of atomic bomb or hydrogen bomb where suspicious & suspected of being in spy rings -kept off crucial projects

Sputnik renewed attention to the scientific manpower emergency. Americans felt like they were losing the space race and race to produce scientists The American government wanted to make sure it had access to the products of science and scientists. The size of university campuses and student bodies grew dramatically in the 1950's and 1960's mostly with subsidies from government defense dollars. 1950 = 9,000 PhDs by 1973 = 35,000 PhDs 1958 Education Bill: The National Defense Education Act aimed both high school and college science education •Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC) •Emphasis on new methods in teaching mathematics, physics, biology and earth science •Curriculum Reform •On the eve of Sputnick the United States lacked anything resembling a coordinated science policy Decentralized structure of scientific research 1950 = 9,000 PhDs by 1973 = 35,000 PhDs

Nations became independent in the 1950's and 1960's as a result of decolonization in Africa and Asia. They became important in international politics because they could adopt either a liberal democratic or communist form of government. Building dams in Tanzania Building Expertise in India Building health in Mexico, (the professor said this was an excellent example)

American military leaders overlooked the psychological benefits of being first in 1957. American policy makers wanted to be more open/peaceful than the soviets. Made NASA a civilian agency in 1958 1961 JFK declared that USA would put a man on the moon and return before the end of the decade demonstrates the increasing image of science in the Cold War Peaceful manned space flight was needed for American prestige Important to demonstrate that the USA could organize and use advanced technology as effectively/ better than the totalitarian Soviets. Protection from ICBM from Soviets.