HI 260 Review – Flashcards

1800's-1850's; Plain American indians relied on Euro-American horses to capture and hunt buffalo of the aired, dry dessert in the Plains. B/c this region of the United States has little agricultural capabilities, Plain indians relied solely on buffalo for survival. Euro-Americans exposed this weakness and began to massacre buffalo, threatened Plain indian survival.

1862-1869; Transcontinental rail system that connected the East and West coasts at Promontory Utah. Efficient and increased US for trade and transportation. Efficient b/c there was no further need for sailing around the continent; however, it threatened NA tribes living in these regions.

1887; Passed by Congress in 1887. Its purpose was to Americanize/Civilize the Native Americans. The act broke up the reservations, gave some of the land to Native Americans (1/4 to Families, 1/8 to Single 18+, 1/8 to Orphans, 1/16 to Single -18). The government was to sell the remainder to white settlers and use the income from that sale for Native Americans to buy farm equipment; however, tribal reservations had little to no farming capabilities. But by 1932 white settlers had taken 2/3 of reservation territory, and Native Americans received no money from the sale of the reservations. Reduced NA land from 138 million to 48 million. end tribalism and dismantle reservations -Native Americans are now going to be assimilated into the US, each person gets allotment of land, children are sent to school... - "you are going to become a citizen of the United States" -trying to end tribalism - land ownership seemed to be an important step in civilization Dawes Allotment Act (1887-1934) -dismantle reservations -private allotments and landholding -160 acres and lesser amounts to minors -Select their own lands -Sale of surplus land

1887; Day school for American Indian children Steps with Reservations -Cultural Identity (appearance - hair, uniforms) -Names (surnames) -Discipline = time -Structure (almost like military discipline) -Overall failure because the children would go home and refer back to original ways of the tribe

1887; Means for the US government to achieve assimilation of NA children. Institutions were developed to counteract NA traditional ways and NA children were removed from their families to prevent regression. Erased their culture, language, names, appearance and clothes. Taught NA to think of themselves as savages and that education was the bridge to them achieving civilized/individualistic status. Resistance: Parental: Withdrawal and hiding children, encouraged children to runaway, refuse to send children Children: Escape and run, arson, revival Government: Sent troops, student humiliation, criminal punishment

1890; NA medical doctor who was the first European style doctor for the NA. Tended to the wounded at the Massacre of Wounded Knee. Red Progressive doctor who supported Allotment, but remained Indian and founded Society of American Indians, Sioux. -Half Indian Half white -worked to bring about assimilation of Indians into mainstream society -had been raised in the traditional ways and remained strongly attached to Sioux values **He demonstrated that in this rapidly changing world of American Indians one could adapt without totally assimilating.

1890; Spiritual/Cultural dance that attempted to reconnect tribes and unionize NA. Religious movement/effort of the Lakota tribe. The last effort of Native Americans to resist US domination and drive whites from their ancestral lands came through a religious movement known as the Ghost Dance. In the government's campaign to suppress the movement, the famous Sioux medicine man sitting Bull was killed during his arrest. Led to Massacre at Wounded Knee.

1890; Massacre that started when Sioux left the reservation in protest because of the death of Sitting Bull. The US army killed 150 sioux at wounded knee; last major incident in the great plains.

1906; Gave the "Secretary of the Interior" more power to choose which Indians would get land and which would not. It also made Indians pay taxes if they were to hold their land, most could not afford such fees and therefore would sell their lands to whites. To gain land an Indian needed to be less than 25% Indian to be considered competent. Tribes lost 90 million acres of reservation land during this time 1887-1934. US citizenship would be withheld until 25 yr period concluded or until NA allotee received a fee patent from the secretary of the inferior.

1911; Activism and conservative group. Addressed the problems that NA faced, such as Edu., civil rights and local governments. Encouraged Indian leadership and self help to foster the assimilation of indians while encouraging them to exhibit pride in their culture. First org. created and run solely by NA. These people were the first generation of the New Pan Indian intellectuals...known as the "Red Progressives." ***It represented a first step toward the kind of pan-Indian unity that would play a vital role in the protection of Indian rights and the preservation of Indian culture in later years.***

1914-1918; Early leaders of the Society of American Indians (1911). Included highly educated NA women and men, such as Charles Eastman. Trying to fight for reform of American Indian Policy, favored assimilation, citizenship, health care on reservations and settlement of Native American court claims. ***"New Pan-Indian Movement"***

1918; NA portrayed patriotism. Significant contributions with 12,000 NA fighting. The had other duties such as "code-talkers." Indian Citizen Act (1924); Citizenship and voting rights given, however, citizenship = taxes = indian poverty.

1920's;

1933-1945; Truly responsible for the New Deal, Merriam Report and the IRA, Commissioner of Indian Affairs appointed by FDR. "Indian New Deal" provided jobs and relief and built schools and hospitals, took bold steps by departing from the past Indian educational policy and promoting a bilingual and bicultural education, Paternalism - wanting to change US relations with Native Americans. Created the Indian Reorganization Act/"Indian New Deal," restored to Indians the management of their assets (being mainly land) and included provisions intended to create a sound economic foundation for the inhabitants of Indian reservations, acted towards reversing the Dawes Act.

1928; John Collier's "blueprints" for the New Deal. Written in 1926, the Department of Interior commissioned a survey for Indian affairs. This report detailed the problems confronting American Indians and drew attention to the poverty, ill health, and despair that beset Indian communities. It recommended promotion of social and economic advancement for Indians; additionally, the report called for an end to allotment and advocated phasing out Indian boarding schools.

1933; (FDR) focused on the employment of the unemployed and the regulation of unfair business ethics. The NIRA pumped cash into the economy to stimulate the job market and created codes that businesses were to follow to maintain the ideal of fair competition and created the NRA, established Public Works Administration and National Recovery Administration to help economic recovery from Great Depression; NRA was ruled unconstitutional in Schechter Poultry v. US

1935; FDR created for both industrial recovery and for unemployment relief. Headed by the Secretary of Interior, it aimed at long-range recovery and spent $4 billion on thousands of projects that included public buildings, hospitals, highways, and parkways. Much less controversial than the Works Progress Administration ((WPA)(1933)).

1933-72; A public work relief program for unemployed men so they have jobs. The men worked on jobs related to conservation and development of natural resources. Built dams, plant tress, reservoirs, etc... Huge change in the economy and aided American indians, created a difference for jobs. Indian Emergency Conservation work program (14,400 Indian enrollees). CCC only hired single men between 18-25 though. ***CCC-ID*** -accepted married men -camps exceeded 225 limit imposed on non-Indian work camps -Family allowed in camps -Workers were able to gain additional work skills -six month limit lifed -80,000 Native American worked for the CCC-ID

1934; ***Part 1: Indian Reorganization Act*** -1930 after great depression -John Collier, paternalism and the Indian Reorganization Act -Gradual Assimilation [instead of forced] - new method of integration -Ending allotment and consolidating tribal lands -Tribal heritage, government and culture -Day school- better choice than boarding schools -Bilingual and bicultural education -Native Americans and poverty, poorest americans, 50% of Native Americans Landless ***Part 2: New Deal Programs*** -National Recovery Act (NRA): employing people -Agriculture Adjustment Act (AAA): provided payment to land owner to plowing up every 4th row of cotton -Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): designed to provide jobs for young men, to relieve families who had difficulty finding jobs during the Great Depression in the United States while at the same time implementing a general natural resource conservation program -Civilian Work Administration (CWA): created construction jobs, mainly improving or constructing buildings and bridges. Created jobs for 4 Million people. -Works Progress Administration (WPA): forbidden to compete with private enterprises (therefore the workers had to be paid smaller wages). Created to return the unemployed to the work force. The WPA financed a variety of projects such as hospitals, schools, and roads, and employed more than 8.5 million workers -Social Security Act (SSA): 1935

1934; Center piece of the Indian New Deal. Majority accepted it, some declined it b/c they said it robbed tribes of sovereignty and treaty rights. Ended allotment and permitted tribes to organize their own governments and to incorporate their trust lands communally. Led to gradual assimilation, "ends" allotment/consolidation, day schools rather than boarding schools to preserve NA heritage. Regained land back and moved forward in education, cultural preservation and control over their own affairs...allowing tribes a measure of self-determination but promoted indirect colonial control from Washington.

1944; Founded in response to termination and assimilation policies that the US government was enforcing upon NA's. Created because of the struggle against termination and the principle of Native American organization. In 1961, more than 400 members of 67 tribes gathered in Chicago and issued the Declaration of Indiana Purpose, which stressed the "right to choose our own way of life" and the "responsibility of preserving our precious heritage." 5 focuses: 1) race, 2) poverty, 3) foreign policy (cold war), 4) anti-colonialism, 5) self-determination. -NCAI -founded in 1944 to protect Indian Rights -"we must assert our right to maintain ownership in our own way and terminate it only with our consent" -fought for restoration of tribal status ??"Robbed groups of sovereignty and treaty rights"?? Today key goals of the NCAI are: • Enforce for Indians all rights under the Constitution and laws in the United States; • Expand and improve educational opportunities provided for Indians; • Improve methods for finding productive employment and developing tribal and individual resources; • Increase number and quality of health facilities; • Settle Indian claims equitably; and • Preserve Indian cultural values.

1945; 25,000 NA fought, included Women's Army Corps. (WAC) and Army Nurse's Corp. (ANC). Iroquois vs. United States: Iroquois did not agree with the US's ability to draft NA into war, broke established treaty policy. Indians supported the war effort more than any other group. 1/3 in armed forces, 1/4 defense-related, WAVES. Left reservations, gained vocational skills and understanding of society. Loss of New Deal support and jobs, patriotism; causes for enlistment. "Code talkers"; used Indian languages to code messages

1946; -Congress established ICC to review tribal grievances over treaty enforcement and management of resources and dissolve lingering disputes between Indian tribes and US government -Tribes had 5 years to file their cases...compensated if the courts decided in their favor -Trouble arose with how, who and when the money should be paid -Estimated $800 million paid off

1952; Result of Voluntary Relocation Programs in 1952 that urbanized NA's into cities. New communities arose that attempted to preserve NA culture. Notable in the New Indian Youth Council (1961) and subsequently in the American Indian Movement (AIM)(1968), especially at the Siege at Wounded Knee (1973).

1960's; Urbanization. Essentially took NA off their reservations and moved them into cities

1961; New-Pan Indian Coalition that was a militant group, leading to the Siege at Wounded Knee (1973) and the American Indian Movement (1968). Civil rights organization really. Goal of NIYC was to protect Indian territory and hunting/fishing rights.

1968; Native American activists who focused on leadership and AI sovereignty. Formed from issues of urbanization like poverty, housing, police harassment. Militant group who partook in the Siege of Wounded Knee (1973). - nationalism and cultural rebirth - aggressive advocacy and direct confrontation - demanded government cease assault on american indian tribes - fulfill treaty obligations - want self-determination - change from before

1972; Required participation of Native Americans in the planning of all relevant educational projects and to provide financial assistance to local schools to develop programs to meet the special educational needs of all Native American students.Resulted in some improvements to education; established funding for special bilingual & bicultural programs, culturally relevant teaching materials, proper training and hiring of counselors, and establishment of an Office of Indian Education in the US Department of Education. -provided for Indian children who attended public schools 1. It recognizes that American Indians have unique, educational and culturally related academic needs and distinct language and cultural needs; 2. It is the only comprehensive Federal Indian Education legislation, that deals with American Indian education from pre-school to graduate-level education and reflects the diversity of government involvement in Indian education; 3. It focuses national attention on the educational needs of American Indian learners, reaffirming the Federal government's special responsibility related to the education of American Indians and Alaska Natives; and 4. It provides services to American Indians and Alaska Natives that are not provided by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.

1973; Occurred b/c of New Pan-Indian Coalitions/Communities like the NIYC and AIM. Conflict b/w militant AI activists and conservative tribal leaders. Activists were essentially challenging the legitimacy of the tribal leaders. Was an armed confrontation of the settlement city of Wounded Knee. 200 AIM seized and occupied the town of Wounded Knee. Happened when an Oglala man was slaughtered by white men from a rape conspiracy. AIM controlled settlement through violence and aggression for 71 days.

1974; -authorized federal grants and loans to federally recognized tribes to promote economic development and led to the creation of the Indian Business development program

1975; Authorized government agencies to enter into contracts with, and make grants directly to federally recognized AI tribes. Would result in greater control of American Indian welfare. Product of 15 yrs of change, influenced by AI activists, civil rights, and community development based on the Grass Root's political participation. -Nixon -Increased American Indian leadership and input -lands -gave tribes instead of government officials the right to administer federal assistance programs -Tribal governments could now contract to provide services previously carried out by the Department of the Interior and the Department of Health, Education and Welfare

1975; Nixon/American indians. Indian rights/land regained and it increased indian leadership: 1) Indian Education Act, 2) Indian Child Welfare Act, 3) Indian Finance Act, 4) Self-Determination & Educational Assistance Act. -argued against paternalism -nixon administration - nixon and american indian self determination - congress 1970's - indian rights - increased american indian leadership and input - lands

1978; Congress amended the ARFA to allow Native Americans the right of use, transport, and possesses peyote for religious purposes. -Congress declared its intention "to protect and preserve for American Indians their inherent right of freedom to believe, express, and exercise" their traditional religions, "including but not limited to access to sites use and possession of sacred objects, and the freedom to worship through ceremonials and traditional rights"

1978; Enacted in 1978, it seeks to protect Native American families and tribes by providing a legal mechanism for tribes to assume jurisdiction over Native American children who have been involuntarily removed by state and local authorities. Keep NA children with their NA families. -renounced the practice of transferring care of Indian children to non-Indians, required state courts to apply Native cultural values when placing Indian children, and placed responsibility for the welfare if Indian children squarely with their tribe.

The Five Civilized Tribes: 1) Cherokee (North), 2) Choctaw (East), 3) Chickasaw (South), 4) Creek (West/Central), 5) Seminole (West/Central). The five tribes of Southeastern United States. Mississippian Culture

The paradigm between a father/government and son/society. Former doing what they believe is best for the latter, regardless of what the latter desires/believes in right. Seen in the Dawes Act (1887) with Edu. of American Indian children and later in day schools.

Key part in the decade following WWII in the 1960's. Indians were alienated to cities and unfamiliar with the ways of life outside of their NA culture. They initially had government support. Transition to Alienation to Community ties (e.g. New Pan-Indian Coalition). -After the Allotment Act placed them on small plots of land and some left to find employment elsewhere -During WWI large numbers of Indians moved to cities -Thousands of Indians were given one way tickets to cities they were expected to live and work like other Americans -Hard for Indians to adjust because so used to community instead of individual capitalists -Although the relocation programs were reduced around the 1970s. jobs and social opportunities attracted young Indians to urban areas -by end of the twentieth century more than two thirds of American Indians lived in urban areas

1953-1966; -State Congresses terminated 109 tribes across the US -All tribes had to have court case -Ended trust relationship between tribes and government - Transfer jurisdiction to state and local gov - states could unilaterally extend jurisdiction - remove government support

- U.S. governments attempts to further "civilize" the native americans by targeting the children and requiring them to go to boarding schools to be educated in the american ways - attempted to separate them from their families (overnight school) so they would not revert back to their cultural ways. - four sections of the book: civilization, education, response, and return home (or causatum)? - Thesis: the U.S. government's attempts to "kill the indian and save the man," through their education system. - Irony: americans thought they were doing god's work - stripping of customs, language, and relationships etc. Four major steps: 1). cultural identity - appearance, cut long hair, implemented uniforms 2). change their names - needed surname (last name), needed new names because their names were too difficult to pronounce. 3). discipline - time schedule (time was not most important in their lives previously) 4). structure - community, regimented. - government thought they were "helping" by destroying their culture (savage to civilized) - goal of boarding school: to assimilate and americanize the native americans Response was Resistance: - young new indian boys attacking teachers - youth and parents went to great lengths to resists A). Parents opposition - indian parents were deeply opposed to white schooling - parents would refuse to send children - government would respond by withholding their rations or locking them up in guardhouse. - took kids away from school and hid (willingly/ unwillingly) - entire villages would refuse to send the children - offered orphans - bargaining - choose one child or another in some cases to take to boarding school - took the not so intelligent children - parents withdrew children or encouraged them to runaway - tribal elders demine school teachings during vacations - resistance comes from forced acculturation - when permissive acculturation was used, they fused harmoniously - withdrew due to certain aspects of the school: punishments, manual labor, mistreatment. - parents mostly resented boarding schools because it severed parents child bond - schools were a breeding ground for sickness. * ghost dance movement fueled resistance because it revived cultural practices and meaning. B). Student Resistance -Escape and Run -Arson -Revival of cult identity C). Government Response -troops -student humiliation -criminal punishment