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Learning

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Process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

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Associative Learning

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Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (in classical conditioning) or a response its consequences (in operant conditioning)

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Cognitive Learning

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The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

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Respondent Behavior

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Behavior that occurs automatic response to some stimulus Ex. Feeling frightened when you hear thunder

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Operant Behavior

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Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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Classical Conditioning

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We learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events

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Operant Conditioning

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- Learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequences - Thus we and other animals learn to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results

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Behaviorism

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The view that psychology 1. should be an objective science that 2. studies behavior without reference to mental processes Most psychologists agree with 1 but not 2

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Pavlov and his Dog Experiments

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- Isolated dogs in small rooms and attached a device to measure saliva output - First they slid a food bowl, later by blowing meat powder into the dog's mouth at a precise moment - They then paired various Neutral Stimuli (NS) a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning with food, with food in the dog's mouth such as a slight sound or signaled arrival of food - After a while they began to salivate just by the Neutral Stimuli which is now called Conditioned Stimuli

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Unconditioned Stimuli (US)

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- A stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically- triggers an unconditioned response (UR) Ex. Thunder Noise

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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- An unlearned naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (US) such as a thunder noise Ex. Getting Scared

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Neutral Stimuli (NS)

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- A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning Ex. Phone Beeping

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Conditioned Stimuli (CS)

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- An originally irrelevant stimuli that, after associated with an unconditioned stimuli (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR) Ex. If you associated the phone beeping with thunder, the phone beeping will become the CS

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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- An originally irrelevant stimuli (Phone beeping) that after associated with an unconditioned stimuli (thunder noise) comes to trigger a conditioned response (getting scared)

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Acquisition

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- Initial learning of an association - The initial stage when one links a neutral stimuli and an unconditioned stimuli so that the neutral stimuli begins triggering the conditioned response - Usually takes half a second to begin

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Extinction

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- The diminishing of a conditioned response occurs when an unconditioned response (US) does not follow a conditioned stimuli (CS) - Occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

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Spontaneous Recovery

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- The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response - Suggested to Pavlov that extinction suppressed the CR rather than eliminating it

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Generalization

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- The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimuli to elicit similar responses

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Discrimination

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- The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimuli and a stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimuli

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Little Albert and fear conditioning

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- Feared loud noises but not white rats - When he would reach for the rat, a loud frightening noise would occur - After seven trials, he would cry when he saw the rat - Five days later he would generalize - This would now be considered unethical

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Operant Condtioning

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Behavior that is strengthened if followed by a reinforced or diminished if followed by a punisher

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Skinner

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Worked with rats to observe the law of effect by providing them with an operant chamber they could manipulate for water/food reinforcer

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Law of Effect

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- Developed by Thorndlike - Behaviors followed by a favorable consequence become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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Shaping

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Reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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Operant Chamber

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Chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcers; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pressing

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Reinforcement

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- Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows - Can be positive or negative

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Punishment

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- Any event that weakens the behavior it follows - Can be positive or negative

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Positive Reinforcement

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- Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers - A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response - Ex. Candy given after doing chores

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Negative Reinforcement

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- Increased behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli - Negative reinforcement is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response - NOTE: Negative reinforcement is NOT a punishment - Ex. The seatbelt noise turns off once you put on your seatbelt

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Positive Punishment

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- Administer an aversive stimuli - Something is added into the situation - Ex. Given a ticket for speeding

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Negative Punishment

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- Withdraw a rewarding stimulus - Something is taken away from the situation - Ex. Taking away driver's license for misbehaving

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Primary Reinforcers

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Innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need

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Conditioned Reinforcers

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Stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

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Immediate Reinforcers

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Immediately rewarding the subject after they perform the necessary task

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Delayed Reinforcers

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If not reinforced properly, another behavior mat become the necessary task

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Continuous Reinforcement

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- Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs - Learning occurs rapidly which makes it best choice for mastering a behavior - Extinction also occurs rapidly - Ex. Pressing a button on a vending machine

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Partial Reinforcement

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- Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction then does continuous reinforcement - Ex. Salesperson does not make a sale with every pitch, but they persist because occasionally they are rewarded

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Fixed-Ratio Interval

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- Reinforces a response only after a specific number of response - Produces high rates of responding - Ex. Lottery Machines

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Fixed Interval

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- Reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed -Ex. able to collect a job bonus after 80 hours of work

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Variable Interval

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- Reinforcers a response at unpredictable time intervals - Ex. receiving an email

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Drawbacks of using physical punishment with children

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- Punished behavior is suppressed not forgotten - Punishment teaches discrimination among situations - Punishment can teach fear - Physical punishment may increase aggression my modeling violence as a way to cope with problems

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Cognitive Map

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- Mental representation of the layout of one's environment - Ex. We have a cognitive map of the neighborhood

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Latent Learning

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- Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it - Ex. Student learns new way to solve math problem and doesn't apply it unless the question asks for that method specifically

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Intrinsic Motivation

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- Desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake - Ex. Running to stay healthy

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Extrinsic Motivation

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- Desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards to to avoid threatened punishment - Ex. Running to stay away from clowns

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Observational Learning

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- Learning by observing others - Ex. Child sees someone touch a stove and burns their finger, he learns not to touch the stove

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Bandura

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- Kids worked on a drawing in a room while on the other side of a room, an adult would attack and kick a big doll - The kid was then led to a second room with appealing toys - Shortly, the kid was removed from the room and was told it was not meant for him - The kid, now frustrated, is led to a third room with less appealing toys and an identical doll from the first room - Kid goes ballistic on said big doll

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Prosocial/Antisocial Effects of Observational Learning

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- Can help new employees learn communication, sales, and customer service skills - Trainees gain these skills faster when they are able to observe the skills being modeled effectively by experienced workers or actors simulating them -Can teach bad behavior - People see that on TV stunt coordinators can set themselves fire and be fine, some kid may try the same

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Role of Mirror Neurons

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- Frontal Lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing doing so - The brain's mirroring of another's action many enable imitation and empathy - Ex. Same neurons in the frontal lobe will fire when riding a bike vs watching the Tour De France

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Memory

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The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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Recall

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- Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness, but that was learned at an earlier time - Ex. A Fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall

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Recognition

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- Identifying items previously learned - Ex. A multiple-choice questions your recognition

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Relearning

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- Learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time - When you study for a final exam, you will relearn the material more easily then you did initially

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Ebbinghaus' Retention studies and curve

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Found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables of Day 1, the less time he required to relearn in on Day 2. Speed of relearning is one measure of memory retention

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Encoding

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Getting Information in our brain

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Storage

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Retaining the information

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Retrieval

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To be able to pull information back out

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Sensory Memory

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- We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory - The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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Short-Term Memory

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- From there, we process the information into short-term memory where we encode it through rehearsal - Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as a phone number, before the information is either stored or forgotten

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Long-Term Memory

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- Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval - The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills and expereince

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Explicit Memory

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- Facts and experiences we can consciously know - Encoding of these require effortful processing which is encoding that requires attention and a conscious effort

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Implicit Memory

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- Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations - Some information skips conscious encoding and goes directly into storage, these implicit memories are encoding through automatic processing, which is unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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Iconic Memory

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- A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli - Ex. a picture memory that lasts for no more than few-tenths of a second

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Echoic Memory

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- A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli - Ex. if attention is somewhere, we can recall words within 3 or 5 seconds

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Chunking

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- Organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically - Ex. Organizing Chocolate, M&Ms Hershey, Snickers as "chocolates"

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Mnemonics

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- Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices - Ex. When I tell you to memorize the Phrase "The tall blue man was riding on the red bike" Mnemonics would help you paint a mental picture of that

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Hierarchies

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- When people develop expertise in an area, they process information not only in chunks but also in hierarchies composed of few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts - Ex. If you take another science class with Psychology the Hierarchy would be "Science" that would be divided into Psych and the other science which would be further divided into topics in each perspective class. Think Tree Diagram

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Distributed Practice

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The practice to space out learning information, do not cram all the material in one night, study a little every night

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Spacing Effect

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The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice

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Testing Effect

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Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information

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Deep Processing

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- Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words - Ex. When I say the word Happiness, Deep processing makes you think of what makes you happy

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Shallow Processing

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- Encoding on a basis level - Ex. When I say the word Happiness, Shallow Processing makes you think how to spell the word

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Semantic Memory

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- Facts and general Knowledge - Frontal Lobes

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Episodic Memory

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- Experienced Events -Hippocampus

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Memory Consolidation

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- Memories are not permanent stored in the hippocampus -The neural storage of a long-term memory

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Amygdala

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- Stress provoked -Initiates a memory trace that boosts activity in the brain's memory forming areas

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Flashbulb Memories

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- Clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event - Ex. First Kiss

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Long Term Potentiation

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- An increased in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation - Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

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Priming

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- The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, this predisposing one's perception, memory, or response - After seeing or hearing a rabbit, you may spell the spoken word "hair/hare" as h-a-r-e

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Context Dependent Memory

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- Memories depend on context and on the cues we have associated with that context - Ex. If you were chewing mint gum while learning a new concept, this concept would seem easier to recall/recognize if you were chewing the same flavor gum

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State-Dependent Memory

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- Memories depending on if you were sober or drunk - If you were to hide something when drunk, you are better to remember where it was hidden drunk rather than sober

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Serial Position Effect

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- Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list - Ex. If you were told to memorize the list, Doctor, Binder, Phone, Wire, Key, Spray, Vaseline, Lamp, Journal within a fraction of a second or any short amount of time, you would remember Doctor and Journal the clearest

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Super Memory

answer

Enlarged areas of the brain that make it near impossible to forget information

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Anterograde Amnesia

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Inability to form new memories

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Retrograde Amnesia

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Inability to retrieve information from one's past

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Encoding Failure

answer

- At times, insignificant details may have slipped by and forgotten - Ex. Bet you can't remember if I was wearing a blue or red shirt on Tuesday Class... Cause it was Maroon

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Storage Decay

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- Retention of information drops off a lot initially at the beginning then slowly decays away if we don't use it -Ex. In the future if self-driving cars become the norm, we many eventually forget how to drive

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Retrieval Failure

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- Being able to remember very little of a subject, but able to show the concept isn't new - Ex. You see an old friend, You may recognize their face, or even remember the first letter of their name, but cannot recall their full name

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Interference

answer

- As you collect more information, your memory never gets full, but sometimes new and old information may conflict with each other

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Proactive Interference

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- The forward- acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information - Ex. If you buy a new locker lock, you may try to put in your old combination instead of your new one

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Retroactive Interference

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- Occurs when new learning disrupts recall of old information - Ex. If you were to hear a song parody, those lyrics may interrupt your memory when thinking of the original song

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Reconsolidation

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- Process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

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Misinformation Effects

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- When misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

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Imagination Effects

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- Ex. If two cars swiped each other and you were asked "how fast were the cars going when they SMASHED into each other, you will say it was at a higher speed then it actually was

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Source Amnesia (Misattribution

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- Attributing to the wrong sources we have experienced, heard about, read about, or even imagined

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Tips to Improve Memory

answer

- Rehearse Repeatedly - Make the material meaningful -Activate retrieval cues -Use mnemonic devices -Minimize interference -Sleep more -Test yorself

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Cognition

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All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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Concepts

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Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, and people

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Prototypes

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- A mental image or best example of a category

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Algorithms

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- Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution

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Heuristic

answer

- Simple thinking strategy, that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently, usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

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Insight

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A sudden realization of a problem's solution contrasts with strategy-based solutions

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Mental Set

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A tendency to approaching a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

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Intuition

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An effortless, immediate automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoing

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Confirmation Bias

answer

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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Availability Heuristic

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- Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory - If instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

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Overconfidence

answer

- The tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate that accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

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Belief Perseverence

answer

- Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

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Framing (And effects of it)

answer

- The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can affect decisions and judgements

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Functional Fixedness

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- Limits a person to using an object in the way it is traditionally used

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Convergent Thinking

answer

- Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solutions

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Divergent thinking

answer

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions i.e. "Creative Thinking"

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Phonemes

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- In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit - Not letters but the sounds they make

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Morphemes

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- The smallest unit of language that carry meanings - Ex. Prefixes and suffixes

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Grammar

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- A system of rules in language that enables us to communication with and understand others

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Stages of language development

answer

- Babbling Many speech sounds (4 months) - Babbling resembling household language (10 Months) - One-word stage (12 Months) -Two-word Speech (24 Months) - Rapid Development into complete sentences (24+ Months)

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Broca's Area

answer

Controls language expression, an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere that directs the muscle involved in speech

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Wernicke's Area

answer

Controls language reception a brain area involved in a language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

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Intelligence

answer

The mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

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Spearman's g

answer

A general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman, underlies specific mental abillites and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

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Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

answer

- Identified 8 Intelligences - Linguistic, Logical Mathematical, Musical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Naturalist

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Sterberg's 3 Intelligences

answer

Analytical, Creative, Practical

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Analytical Intelligence

answer

School smarts; tradtional academic problem solving

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Creative Intelligence

answer

The ability to react adaptively to new situations and generate novel ideas

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Practical Intelligence

answer

Street smarts, skill at handling, everyday tasks, which may be ill defined, with multiple solutions

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Emotional Intellignece

answer

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

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Aptitude Tests

answer

- A test designed to predict a person's future performance - Aptitude is the capacity to learn

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Achievement Tests

answer

- A test designed to assess what a person already knows

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Mental Age

answer

- Measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

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Stanford-Binet

answer

Widely used America Revision of Binet's original intelligence test

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IQ

answer

Mental Age/Chronological age x 100

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Crystallized Intelligence

answer

- Our accumulated knowledge as reflected in vocabulary and analogies tests - Increases up to old age

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Fluid Intelligence

answer

- Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving logic problems - Decreases when we age

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Intellectual Disabliity

answer

A Condition of limited mental ability indicated by an intelligence test score of 70 or below

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Motivation

answer

Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

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Instinct

answer

Complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species is unlearned

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Drive Reduction Theory

answer

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state that motivates an organism to satisfy a need

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Homestasis

answer

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

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Incentives

answer

Positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

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Optimum Arousal

answer

Having all of our biological needs satisfied, we feel bored and look for a way to increase arousal to some optimum level Lacking stimulation, we feel bored and look for a way to increase arousal to some optimum level

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

answer

- Some needs take priority over others - When your basic needs are satisfied, you have other motives such as the desire to achieve

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Affiliation Need

answer

The need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

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Ostracism and its effects

answer

Deliberate social exclusion of individual or groups Elicits increased activity in brain areas such as the anterior cingulate cortex that also activates in response to physical pain

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Effects of Social Networking

answer

- Lonely people tend to spend greater than average online while social butterflies gravitate toward face to face interaction - Self-disclosure is sharing our joys worries weaknesses and more with others - Social networks tend to reflect a person's actual personality -Narcissism is excessive self-love and self-absorption and not healthy

question

Achievement Motivation

answer

A desire for significant accomplishment for mastery of skills or ideas for control and for attaining a high standard

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Grit

answer

A passion and perseverance of pursuit of long-term goals

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Neophobia

answer

Disliking of unfamiliar things

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Situational Influences on Eating

answer

1. Arousing Appetite 2. Friends and Food (You tend to eat more when around friends) 3. Serving size is a significant unit bias (People eat more when given a bigger plate) 4. Selections stimulate, If dessert is available, we take it 5. Nudging nutrition, putting the availability of healthy foods at the beginning of a lunch line will prompt more people to get it

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Emotion

answer

A response of the whole organism, involving physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience

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James-Lange Theory

answer

- Theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus - You begin to feel emotion after you body has responded -Ex. We strike first, then we get angry

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Cannon-Bard Theory

answer

- Theory that an emotion arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers a physiological response and the subjective experience of emotion -Ex. We get angry as we strike

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Schachter-Singer's Two factor theory

answer

To experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

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Role of Cognition in Emotion

answer

In the two track brain, sensory input is routed to the cortex via the thalamus for analysis and then transmission to the amygdala; or directly to the amygdala via the thalamus for an instant emotional reaction

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Basic Emotions

answer

- Joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt -Izard argues that some emotions like love are a combination of joy and interest-excitement

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Physiological patterns of emtion

answer

We can't easily see differences in emotion from tracking heart rate, breathing, and perspiration, but facial expressions and brain activity can vary from one emotion to another

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Facial Feedback Effect

answer

The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings

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Behavior Feedback Effect

answer

The Tendency of behavior to influence our own and other's thoughts, feelings, and actions

GSU Psychology Exam 2 Chapter 6-9 (Dr. Tusher) – Flashcards

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