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minerals

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naturally occurring inorganic solids with definite chemical compositions and crystalline structure the "building blocks" of rocks

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Commodities

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1) The "value of geology" -fossil fuels (includes petroleum and natural gas) -mineral resources (includes metals and other usable Earth materials)

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rocks

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naturally occurring substances made of minerals *have a high variability in composition and particle size, shape and arrangement

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mineralogy

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study of minerals

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petrology

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study of rocks

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geochemistry

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study of chemistry of minerals, rocks and water

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geophysics

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*study of the physics of the Earth; including: -earthquakes -earth magnetism -earth gravity -heat transfer -movement and deformation of the Earth's crust -mountain building

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geomorphology and sedimentology

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Study of Earth's land forms and the processes that have formed them

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geochronology

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study of earth's time including studies of: -rock layers -absolute dating techniques -studies of ancient life

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economic geology

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exploration and exploitation of economic minerals and hydrocarbons

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hydrogeology/hydrology

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geology of surface and underground water resources

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environmental geology

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protection and proper utilization of earth resources involves studies of engineering geology, hydrogeology, geomorphology, geochemistry and geophysics.

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James Hutton

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-father of geology -formulated concept of uniformitarianism - the present is the key to the past

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Charles Lyell

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Author of "Principles of Geology" that popularized the principle of uniformitarianism

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actualism

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-apply studies of modern processes to ancient rocks -the processes that now shape the Earth were similar in the geologic past, although rate of change may vary. - recognizes that "catastrophes" can have powerful influence on the Earth

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Relative Geologic Time

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-placing events in a sequence based on their relative positions in the geologic (rock) record -primarily use fossil studies and the study of rock layers

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Absolute Geologic Time

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-date geological events in years - use wide variety of dating techniques, especially radiometric (radioactive) dating.

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Law of Faunal Succession

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-organisms change through time - each life form corresponds to a unique period of Earth's history.

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Paleoecology and Paleoenvironment

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Certain types of fossils help in determining the type of ancient environment

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Paleography

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fossils help to determine the ancient distribution of land and sea

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Paleoclimate

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distribution and morphology (form) of fossils often assist in interpreting ancient climate

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stratigraphy

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study of rock layers

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key bed

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distinctive bed which is nearly the same age everywhere

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Unconformities

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Deposits resting on uncomformities are of similar age

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Isotopes

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Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons

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Radioactive Decay

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Atoms change to another element by releasing subatomic particles and energy; parent isotope decays to daughter isotope at a constant rate

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radiometric dating

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measure amount of parent materials relative to their daughter products

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Half-Life

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time required for isotope to decay to half its original amount

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Carbon-14 Dating

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- Can only be used to date events as far back as 75,000 years - used especially in archeology

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Potassium Argon

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-Abundant in micas and feldspars - Is often used in dating igneous and metamorphic rocks.

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Magnetic Stratigraphy

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Earth's magnetic field reverses itself at regular intervals, recorded by magnetization in volcanic rocks, resulting chronology of magnetic reversals allows us to determine rate of plate movement

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Magnetic Reversals

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Reversal of polarity in Earth's magnetic field

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Expanding Universe

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Expanding at a constant rate, can determine when it was a single point

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Law of Redshifts

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As things move away, ( increase in wavelength), they emit red radiation.

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Indication of the Big Bang

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- expanding universe - presence of background radiation

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Solar Nebula Theory

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formation of our solar system through the condensation and collapse of material

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Terrestrial planets

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-The name often given to the four inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. -closer to the sun and primarily formed of rocks

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Jovian Planets

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- formed primarily from gases - includes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

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Alfred Wegener

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A German scientist who proposed the theroy of continental drift in 1912

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Wegener's evidence for the continental drift

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*fossils *paleoclimatology *geologic evidence

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Harry Hess

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Proposed the theory of sea-floor spreading

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Sea Floor Spreading

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a process of plate tectonics in which new oceanic crust is created, magma swells up as the tectonic plates spread apart, the magma is then cooled by the sea water and forms mountain ranges such as the mid atlantic ridge

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Thermal Convection Cells

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*Hess revived the idea * occurs in mantle *hot magma rises to fracture along mid-ocean ridges *cold crust is subducted back in trenches.

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Crust

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The thin and solid outermost layer of the Earth above the mantle

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Continental Crust

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The portion of the earth's crust that primarily contains granite, is less dense than oceanic crust, and is 20-50 km thick

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Oceanic Crust

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thinner, more dense, younger crust making ocean floor Denser than continental crust

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Mantle

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The layer of hot, solid material between Earth's crust and core. *solid, but can flow very slowly

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Outer Core

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A layer of molten iron and nickel that surrounds the inner core of Earth

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Inner Core

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A dense sphere of solid iron and nickel at the center of Earth

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Layers of the Earth

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crust, mantle, outer core, inner core

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Seismic Refraction

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Bending of seismic waves

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Lithosphere

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A rigid layer made up of the uppermost part of the mantle and the crust. *brittle

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Asthenosphere

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The soft layer of the mantle on which the lithosphere floats. *ductile

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Mesosphere

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The strong, lower part of the mantle between the asthenosphere and the outer core

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Slab Pull

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tectonic process associated with convection currents in Earth's mantle that occurs as the weight of the subducting plate pulls the trailing lithosphere into a subduction zone

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Ridge Push

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The elevated position of the mid-oceanic ridge causes lithosphere slabs to "slide" down the flanks of the ridge

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Divergent

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Two plates move away from each other

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Convergent

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Two plates come together

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Transform

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Plates move past each other

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Divergent Oceanic

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*Two plates move apart.Forms mid- ocean ridge *mid-oceaning ridges constitute a continuous mountain chain * shallow earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain ranges.

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Convergent Oceanic

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*Two oceanic plates come together *Produces island arc systems * Trenches, volcanoes and deep earthquakes

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Benioff Zones

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zones of earthquakes corresponding subduction zones. Planar zone of seismicity corresponding with the down-going slab in a subduction zone. Differential motion along the zone produces numerous earthquakes

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Oceanic Continental

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*more dense oceanic crust dives beneath less continental crust *volcanoes, deep earthquakes and trenches

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Magmatic Arcs

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areas where oceanic lithospheric plates are being recycled

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Convergent Continental

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* often produces fold mountain belts through suturing of continental planes *large mountain ranges

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Transforming Plate Boundaries

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*plates slide past one another * Transform faults offset mid-oceanic ridges at perpendicular angles *large earthquakes

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Divergent Continental

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*creates rift valleys * produces basalt and igneous rocks of mixed composition * Associated with passive continental margins and long, shallow, tectonically inactive shorelines. *shallow earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain ranges

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Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes

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chains of seamounts and volcanic islands are often formed by lithospheric plates moving over "fixed" mantle plumes or hot spots

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Microcontinents

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Small pieces of continental crust that have fragmented and been moved by sea-floor spreading are ex. Madagascar

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Exotic Terrains

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Microcontinents that collide and become attached to longer continental margins ex. parts of Western North America and Appalachia

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Driving force for many geologic processes

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*Earthquakes *Volcanoes *Orogenies *Formation of New Rock and Destruction of Older Rock.

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Minerals

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Naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical and crystalline structure

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Elements

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fundamental components that cannot be broken down to simpler substances by ordinary chemical processes

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8 most common minerals

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Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium

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atoms

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fundamental units of elements

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ions

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charged atoms; atoms with too few or too many electrons

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cations

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Positively charged ions

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anions

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negatively charged ions

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Ionic Bonding

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Chemical bonding that results from the electrical attraction between cations and anions ex. sodium and chloride join to form salt

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Covalent Bonding

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sharing of electrons between atoms ex. carbon atoms in diamonds

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Metallic Bonding

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outer shell electrons travel freely from atom to atom

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Unit Cell

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smallest repeating group *shape of unit cell determines crystal form

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crystal faces

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external manifestations of crystalline structure

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Cleavage

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minerals breaks along flat planes flat planes indicate weak points in the crystals structures

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fracture

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breakage with no flat planes *irregular- no pattern *conchoidal- semi-circle pattern (coke bottle)

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Rock forming minerals

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common minerals that combine easily to create rocks

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Silicates

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*the most abundant chemical group; *silicon and oxygen make up about 84 of every 100 atoms in the crust *silicate bonding with four oxygen for each silicon

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Feldspar

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most common silicate in the earth's crust *most common types: k-feldspar and plagioclase feldspar

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Quartz

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*silicate *common in continental rocks but rare in oceanic & mantle rocks

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pyroxene

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a single-chain silicate common in oceanic & mantle rocks ex. augite

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Amphibole

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A double-chained silicate common in continental and oceanic rocks ex. hornblende

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Mica

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sheet silicates; common in continental rocks ex. Biotite and muscovite

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Olivine

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*silicate *formed of isolated tetrahedra *common in oceanic and mantle rocks *not very stable, weathers easily

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clay minerals

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*often formed from the weathering of other minerals *very common in sedimentary rocks

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Metamorphic Silicate Minerals

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ex. garnet and Chlorite

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Carbonates

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With one carbon and three oxygen atoms. ex. Calcite CaCo3 ex. Dolomite- CaMg (CO3)2

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Sulfates

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with one sulfur and 4 oxygen (SO4)-2

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Sulfides

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sulfur combines with some other element (not oxygen) as an anion ex. pyrite-FeS2 galena-PbS

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Halides

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one or more metals combine with one or more halogen elements (fluorine, chlorine, iodine and bromine) salts ex. Halite: NaCl ex. Fluorite: CaF2

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Oxides

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One or more metals combine with oxygen that is an anion * magentite: Fe3O4 *hematite: Fe2O3 *Corundum: Al2O3

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Phosphates

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one or more metals combine with phosphate group -1 phosphorus and 4 oxygen atoms ex. apatite

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Native Elements

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mineral consists of a single element *gold, silver, copper, sulfur, graphite, diamond and platinum

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Ore

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part of a metal-yielding material that can be economically and legally extracted at a given time

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gangue

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waste rock that must be removed before a mineral can be used

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Critical Minerals

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Those considered essential to a nation's economic activity.

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Strategic Minerals

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Fuel or nonfuel minerals, such as manganese, cobalt, platinum and chromium that are vital to the industry and defense of a country often stockpiled to cushion against supply interruptions and sharp price increases

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Identified Resources

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with a known location, quantity and grade or have been estimated from direct geological evidence and measurements

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Undiscovered Resources

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potential supplies of a particular mineral resource, believed to exist because of geologic knowledge and theory, but locations, quality and amounts are unknown

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Reserves

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resources that have been identified and from which a usable mineral can be extracted profitably at present prices with current mining technology identified and unidentified resources not classified as reserves

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Surface Mining

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The extraction of mineral and energy resources near Earth's surface by first removing the soil, subsoil, and overlying rock strata.

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Tailings

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piles of gangue, which is the waste material that results from mining.

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Open Pit Mining

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Removing minerals such as gravel, sand, and metal ores by digging them out of the earth's surface and leaving an open pit.

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Dredging

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Type of surface mining in which chain buckets and draglines scrape up sand, gravel, and other surface deposits covered with water. It is also used to remove sediment from streams and harbors to maintain shipping channels.

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Strip Mining

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A process whereby miners strip away at the surface of the earth to lay bare the mineral deposits

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Subsurface mining

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The extraction of mineral and energy resources from deep underground deposits. ex. coal

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Smelting

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The process by which ore is melted to separate the useful metal from other elements.

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Smelting Environmental Effects

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*disturbs land *noise pollution *produces health hazards *often results in huge volumes of air pollutants

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thermal pollution

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a temperature increase in a body of water that is caused by human activity and that has a harmful effect on water quality and on the ability of that body of water to support life

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Acid Mine Drainage

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Result of rainwater seeping through waste materials called tailings, which creates strong acids & dissolved toxic metals that move into nearby soil & water

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Economically Depleted Minerals

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occurs when finding, extracting, transporting and processing cost more than results are worth

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Depletion Time

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time it takes to use a certain portion of reserves of a mineral at a given rate of use.

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