General Psychology Human Development – Flashcards
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Cross Sectional Research
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People of different ages are compared at the same point in time
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Longitudinal Research
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Investigates behavior as subjects change (same people at different points in time)
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Cross Sequential Research
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Examines different age groups over several points in time - add new comparison groups for each time - Retest original people - Takes a long time so not very common, but best type of research
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Developmental Psychology
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The branch of psychology that explores physical, emotional, cognitive, and social aspects of development
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Major Periods in Human Development
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- Prenatal = conception to birth - Infancy = birth to 1 - Toddler = 1 to 3 - Preschool = 3-6 - Middle childhood = 6-12 - Adolescence = 12-18 - Young adulthood = 18-40 - Middle adulthood = 40-65 - Late adulthood = 65 and older
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Maturation
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The biological unfolding of the organism according to the underlying genetic code
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3 Major prenatal stages
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1) Germinal = spans from period of fertilization through implantation 2) Embryonic = from implantation through about 8th week of pregnancy during which the major organ systems begin to form 3) Fetal = fetus develops beginning around the 9th week and lasting until birth
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Neural Tube
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Area in the embryo from which the nervous system develops - About 3 weeks into pregnancy
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Age of viability
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- Capable of sustaining life on its own - By end of second trimester
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Threats to prenatal development
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- Maternal malnutrition > low birth weight and premature birth - Certain drugs - X-rays - Environmental contaminants
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Spina Bifida
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A neural tube defect in which child is born with a hold in the tube surrounding the spinal chord. Most cases are mild and do not involve any significant problems, but in severe cases, problems such as difficulty walking or performing daily activities without assistance may result
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Most dangerous teratogens
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Teratogen = an environmental influence or agent that may harm the developing embryo or fetus - Infectious diseases (rubella, HIV/AIDS) - Smoking > miscarriage, premature birth, low birth weight, increased risk of infant mortality, SIDs) - Alcohol and Drug usage > fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) - Congenital syphilis >hearing vision impairment, deformed teeth/bones, liver damage
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Infant Reflexes
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- Rooting = turning of newborn's head in direction of touch on cheek - Eyeblink = blinking of eyes that protects newborn from bright light and foreign objects - Sucking = rhythmic sucking in response to stimulation of tongue or mouth - Moro - elicited by sudden noise or loss of support > infant extends its arms, arches back, and brings its arms toward each other as though attempting to grab hold of someone - Palmar grasp = curling of fingers around an object that touches its palm - Babinski = fanning out and curling of infants toes and inward twisting of foot when the sole of foot is stroked
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Sensory and Perceptual Ability of Infants
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- Vision is blurry but can still recognize mother's face - Depth perception develops by around 6 months (visual cliff apparatus used to test this) - Can differentiate sounds in native language hours after they are born - After 5-6 days can detect mother's odor - Can discriminate among different tastes - Can discriminate among happy, angry, and neutral facial expressions (4-6 mo.)
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Newborn Motor Development
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- Can imitate parent's facial expressions - First 3 months = begin replacing reflexive movements with voluntary purposive movements - 2nd or 3rd month = begin bringing objects to mouths - 6 months = reliably grasp stationary objects and begin catching moving objects - 2 months = lift chins - 5 months = roll over - 9 months = sit w/o support - End of first year = standing w/o support/walking
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Temperament
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A characteristic of behavior or disposition - "how" of behavior
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Different temperaments of children
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New York Longitudinal Study - Easy = playful, positive, adapt easily to change, quick to develop regular sleeping/feeding schedules - Difficult = negative to new situations or people, irritable, difficulty establishing regular sleep/feeding schedules - Slow-to-warm-up = low activity levels, require more adjustment to situations, withdrawn and subdued in unfamiliar situations
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Attachement
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The enduring emotional bond that infants and older children form with their caregivers
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Imprinting
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The formation of a strong bond of the newborn animal to the first moving object seen after birth
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Vgotsky's View of Cognitive Development
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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - Level at which a child can almost, but not fully comprehend or perform a task on his or her own - Education should happen within this zone (help them inside the zone) - Scaffolding = proper guidance and instruction
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Harlow's Study
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- Research with psychological development in monkeys - Wire and cloth surrogate - We need our parents to love, care and be there for us
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Ainsworth's Strange Situation (Attachment in human infants)
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- Secure Type = use mothers as a secure base, sometimes cry when mother leaves but greet her warmly and easily soothed upon return - Insecure-Avoidant Type = Pay little attention to mother when she is in room, show little distress when mother departs and ignore her when she returns - Insecure-Resistant Type = Cling to mother, high level of distress when mother leaves, show ambivalence/resistance to mother - Disorganized/disoriented = lack a consistent or organized strategy for responding to separations and reunions *Parental responsiveness highest in securely attached kids, lowest in avoidant kids, and inconsistent in ambivalent kids*
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Effects of Day Care on Attachment
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- High quality center-based day care, by fostering independence and cooperative play, has positive effects on children's cognitive and emotional development - Does not prevent the development of secure attachments to their mothers
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Cultural Differences in Parenting
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- African American families = strong kinship bonds and involve grandmothers - Hispanic = father expected to be provider/protector and mother responsible for child care - Asian = emphasize respect for parental authority (especially father's) and warm maternal relationships
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Parenting Styles
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- Authoritative = firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, explain links to them (shared control) (BEST KIND) - Authoritarian = rigid and punitive and value unquestioned obedience from their children (parent controls) - Permissive = give children lax or inconsistent direction and although warm, require little of them (child controls)
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Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development in Childhood
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- Trust vs Mistrust = Developing a basic sense of trust in the caregiver and the environment (infancy = birth to 1 year) - Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt = Building a sense of independence and self-control (toddlerhood = 1 to 3 years) - Initiative vs Guilt = Learning to initiate actions and carry them out (preschool period = 3-6 years) - Industry vs Inferiority = Becoming productive and involved (elementary school period = 6-12 years)
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Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
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- Schema = mental framework for understanding or acting on the environment (ex: basic reflexes in infants) - Adaption = the process of adjustment that enables people to function more effectively in meeting the demands they face in the environment - Assimilation = the process of incorporating new objects or situations into existing schemas - Accommodation = the process of creating new schemas or modifying existing ones to account for new objects or experiences - Stages = sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
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Sensorimotor Stage
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- Birth to 2 years - Uses its senses and developing motor skills to explore and act upon the world - Develops object permanence - Life is based on sensory experience - Predominance of reflexes - Inability to delay gratification
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Preoperational Stage
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- 2-7 years - Uses language to symbolize objects and actions in words -Childs thinking is limited by egocentrism (self-centered), animalistic thought, centration, and irreversibility - Concrete understanding (don't understand expressions, etc) - Irreversible reasoning
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Concrete Operational Stage
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- 7-11 years - Child becomes able to perform simple logical operations tied to concrete problems - Demonstrates conservation (ability to recognize that the amount of a substance does not change if its shape or size is rearranged) - Reversible reasoning - Itracentric (other-people centered)
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Formal Operation Stage
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- Begins around puberty (11 or 12) - Child develops abstract reasoning abilities - Not all children, nor all adults progress into this stage - Hypothetical deduction - Metacognition (thinking about your own thinking) - Contrary-to-fact hypotheses - Can think without content
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Biblical Evaluation of Piaget's Stages
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- 1 Cor. 13:11 (speak, understand, think like children then we become older and put away childish things) - MOST CONSISTENT WITH BIBLE TEACHING
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Criticisms of Piaget
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- His observations of children's cognitive abilities were limited to a small sample of children - May have underestimated abilities of young children - Failed to account for cultural differences in timing by which stages unfold
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Adolescence
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The period of life beginning at puberty and ending with early adulthood
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Erikson's Stage of Development During Adolescence
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Identity vs Role Diffusion = to develop occupational choice or public role and set firmly held beliefs
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Puberty
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Stage of development at which individuals become physiologically capable of reproducing
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Secondary and primary sex characterisitics
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- Secondary = physical characteristics that differentiate males and females but are not directly involved in reproduction - Primary = Physical characteristics such as the gonads that differentiate males and females and play a direct role in reproduction
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Menarche
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- First menstruation - Average age = 12-13
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Imaginary Audience
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The common belief among adolescents that they are the center of other people's attention
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Personal Fable
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The common belief among adolescents that their feelings and experiences cannot possibly be understood by others and that they are personally invulnerable to harm
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Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
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3 Levels with 2 stages in each level - Preconventional level = base moral judgment on the perceived consequences of behavior - Conventional level = moral reasoning is based on conformity with conventional rules of right and wrong - Postconventional level = involves applying one's own moral standards or abstract principles rather than relying on authority figures or blindly adhering to social rules or conventions Presented subjects with hypothetical situations involving conflicting moral values or dilemmas
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Preconventional Level
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- Stage 1 = punishment and obedience (behavior is judged good if it serves to avoid punishment) - Stage 2 = Instrumental-relativistic morality (behavior is judged good when it serves personal needs or interests)
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Conventional Level
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- Stage 3 = Good boy/good girl morality (conforming with rules to impress others) - Stage 4 = Law and order morality (obeying rules and laws bc they are needed to maintain social order)
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Postconventional Level
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- Stage 5 = Morality of Social Contract (viewing rules and laws as based on mutual agreement in the service of the common good) - Stage 6 = Universal Ethical Principle - Morality of individual principles (adopting an internal moral code based on universal values that takes precedence over social rules and laws)
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Biblical Evaluation of Kholberg's Stages
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- There is some kernel of truth to his notion that small children understand right and wrong differently than adults - Based on hypothetical cases - What people say they would do and what they actually do is different sometimes - Does not account for God's grace - Ignores supernatural possibilities - Results in civil disobedience - Based on situational ethics - Empirical problems
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Carol Gilligan
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- Addressed issue of gender bias in Kohlbeg's work - Rejected view that women are less capable of developing moral reasoning - Care orientation = women; justice orientation = men
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Biblical Evaluation of Erikson's Theory
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- Kernel of truth applies in that people do experience key developmental tasks at different points in life - How we experience such tasks can potentially impact our future life constructs - Important to learn the lessons that God intends for us to learn through various life experiences and trials - Nothing in life occurs that does not first pass through God's permissive hands - Based on notion of fixation - but we can overcome sin in our lives (contrasts fixation) - Places responsibility for problems on others rather than on individual choices - Erikson's theory posits life trauma as being potential impediments to healthy development
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Ego identity
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In Erickson's theory, the attainment of a psychological sense of knowing oneself and one's direction in life
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Identity Crisis
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In Erikson's theory, a stressful period of serious soul searching and self-examination of issues relating to personal values and one's direction in life
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Role Diffusion
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In Erikson's model, a lack of direction or aimlessness with respect to one's role in life or public identity
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Why do some teens become sexually active and others abstain?
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- Peer pressure - Moral reasons - Concern about getting caught, pregnant, or getting an STD - Living in an intact family - Having a family with low levels of conflict - Having at least 1 parent who graduated from college - Placing importance on religion and attending religious services frequently - Having less exposure to sexual content in music, movies, TV, and magazines
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Fluid Intelligence
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A form of intelligence associated with the ability to think abstractly and flexibly in solving problems - Declines as we age
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Crystallized intelligence
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A form of intelligence associated with the ability to use accumulated knowledge - Shows little decline with age and may even improve in certain respects
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Erikson's Stages of Development for Adults
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- Intimacy vs Isolation = form meaningful social relationships (young adulthood) - Generativity vs Self-Absorbtion = develop concern about the world (middle adulthood) - Integrity vs Despair = Achieve personal fulfillment (old age)
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Emerging Adulthood
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The period of psychosocial development, roughly spanning the ages of 18-25, during which the person makes the transition from adolescence to adulthood
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Midlife Crisis
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A stage of psychological crisis, often occurring during middle adulthood, in which people grapple with the loss of their youth
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Dementia
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A condition involving a major deterioration or loss of mental abilities involved in memory, reasoning, judgment, and ability to carry out purposeful behavior
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Alzheimer's disease
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An irreversible brain disease with a progressive course of deterioration of mental functioning
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Key Characteristics Associated with More Successful Aging
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1) Selective Optimization and Compensation = ability to optimize one's time and use available resources to compensate for shortcomings in physical energy, memory, and fluid intelligence 2) Optimism = maintaining optimistic frame of mind > life satisfaction and less depressive symptoms 3) Self-Challenge = seeking new challenges > do more of the things that matter
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5 Stages of Adjusting to Death
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DEVELOPED BY KUBLER-ROSS 1) Denial 2) Anger 3) Bargaining 4) Depression 5) Final Acceptance
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Who studied the process of imprinting geese
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Konrad Lorenz
