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cognition

answer

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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concept

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a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

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prototype

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a mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to this provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

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algorithm

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a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem; contrasts with the usually speedier, but also more error-prone, use of heuristics

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heuristic

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a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier, but also more error-prone than algorithms

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insight

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a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contracts with strategy-based solutions

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confirmation bias

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a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

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mental set

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a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

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intuition

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an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

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availability heuristic

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estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

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overconfidence

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the tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

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belief perseverance

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clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

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framing

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the way an issue is posed; can significantly affect decisions and judgments

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language

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our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

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phoneme

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in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

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morpheme

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in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

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grammar

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in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

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semantics

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in language, the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

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syntax

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in language, the set of rules for combining words in grammatically sensible sentences

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babbling stage

answer

the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language; last from around 4 months to 11-12 months old

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one-word stage

answer

the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words; from about age 1 to 2

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two-word stage

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the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements; begins around age 2

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telegraphic speech

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early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs ("go car")

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aphasia

answer

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding)

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Broca's area

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controls language expression; an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speach

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Wernicke's area

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controls language reception; a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression, usually in the left temporal lobe

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linguistic determinism

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Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

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memory

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the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

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recall

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A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

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recognition

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A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

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relearning

answer

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

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encoding

answer

the processing of information into the memory system--for example, by extracting meaning

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storage

answer

the retention of encoded information over time

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retrieval

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the process of getting information out of memory storage

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sensory memory

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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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short-term memory

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activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

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long-term memory

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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

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working memory

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a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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explicit memory

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memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

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effortful processing

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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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automatic processing

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unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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implicit memory

answer

retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

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iconic memory

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a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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echoic memory

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A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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chunking

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organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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mnemonics

answer

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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spacing effect

answer

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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testing effect

answer

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

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shallow processing

answer

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

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deep processing

answer

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

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hippocampus

answer

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

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flashbulb memory

answer

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

answer

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

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priming

answer

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

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mood-congruent memory

answer

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

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serial position effect

answer

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

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anterograde amnesia

answer

inability to form new memories

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retrograde amnesia

answer

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

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proactive interference

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the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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retroactive interference

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the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

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repression

answer

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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misinformation effect

answer

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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source amnesia

answer

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

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deja vu

answer

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

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learning

answer

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

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associative learning

answer

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

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stimulus

answer

any event or situation that evokes a response

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cognitive learning

answer

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

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classical conditioning

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A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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behaviorism

answer

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

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neutral stimulus

answer

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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unconditioned response

answer

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

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unconditioned stimulus

answer

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

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conditioned response

answer

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

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conditioned stimulus

answer

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

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acquisition

answer

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

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higher-order conditioning

answer

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

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extinction

answer

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

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spontaneous recovery

answer

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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generalization

answer

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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discrimination

answer

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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operant conditioning

answer

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

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law of effect

answer

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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operant chamber

answer

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

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reinforcement

answer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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shaping

answer

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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positive reinforcement

answer

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

question

negative reinforcement

answer

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

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primary reinforcer

answer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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conditioned reinforcer

answer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.

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reinforcement schedule

answer

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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continuous reinforcement

answer

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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partial (intermittent) reinforcement

answer

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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fixed-ratio schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

question

variable-ratio schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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fixed-interval schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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variable-interval schedule

answer

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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punishment

answer

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

question

respondent behavior

answer

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

question

operant behavior

answer

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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cognitive map

answer

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

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latent learning

answer

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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intrinsic motivation

answer

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its OWN sake

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extrinsic motivation

answer

a desire to perform a behavior to RECEIVE promised rewards or AVOID threatened punishment

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observational learning

answer

learning by observing others

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modeling

answer

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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mirror neurons

answer

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

question

prosocial behavior

answer

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior

GENERAL Psychology: Chapters 7-9 – Flashcards

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