General Psychology: Chapter 9 Memory – Flashcards

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Memory
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Mental processes that enable us to retain and use information over time Persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage and retrieval of information Cognitive processes of encoding and retrieving
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3 Fundamental processes of Memory
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1) Encoding 2) Storage 3) Retrieval
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Encoding
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Transforming information into form that can be processed and retained in memory Brain turns different sensations into a neural language -> action potential
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storage
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retention of encoded information over time
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Retrieval
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Accessing information in memory storage and can get put back in storage if needed
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3 stage processing model
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model describing memory as consisting of 3 distinct stages: 1) Sensory Memory 2) Short-term memory (with practice it will turn into LTM) 3) Long-term memory sensory receptors take info-> convert it-> brain creates it
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Sensory Memory
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Immediate initial recording of sensory information in memory system Iconic Memory: "images"- visual sensory memory- most complex scene can be gone in a second Echoic Memory- "Echos"- auditory sensory memory- momentary, hearing stimuli, last 3-4 seconds
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Short Term Memory- STM
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Activated memory mechanism that holds a few items briefly- has limited capacity on average most people can hold 7 memories in STM, plus or minus 2- only good for a short amount of time decays rapidly main purpose of STM is to get into LTM Magic #7 (George Miller) Chunking: increases amount of information that can be held in STM by grouping related items together into single unit
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Working Memory
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INVOLVED IN EVERYTHING Permits temporary storage and manipulation of information i.e., holding bits of information and working with them 4 Interconnected Modules 1) Central Executive- controls 2) Phonological Loop- temporary storage of auditory info 3) Visuospatial sketchpad- temporary storage of visual things 4) Episodic buffer- allows all elements to interact with each, helps with converting STM into LTM Multitask Multicomponent
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Long Term Memory (LTM)
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Relatively permanent and limitless storage memory processes associated with preservation of information for retrieval at any later time Consolidation Process by which information in short term memory is transferred to long term memory only recognize specific number of stimuli at a time associate old info with new info
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Encoding Information
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Effort Processing: requires attention and conscious effort Rehearsal: mental techniques to help remember information, maintain it in consciousness, encode it for storage Maintenance Rehearsal: conscious repetition of information (STM) Elaborative Rehearsal: Associating new material with information that already exists in long-term memory. enriching material by concentrating on its meaning (LTM) -> Creates pathways to be used for later use
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Retrieval of Information
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Retrieval: Process of accessing stored memories Retrieval cues: internal or external clue or prompt used to trigger/ aid in retrieval of a memory Recall: being able to access information without being cued; reproducing previously presented information (ex would be taking a test with fill in the blanks) Recognition: identifying stimuli as having been experienced before (ex would be an multiple choice test)
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Retrieval of Information (2)
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Encoding Specificity: retrieval of information is enhanced if cues present at the time of recall are consistent with those present at the time of encoding; i.e., remember information better when it is recalled the context in which it was learned Context-dependent memory: memory retrieval is best under same external conditions or in same environment as memory encoding- relies on external environment State-dependent memory: memory retrieval best achieved when in the same state as when memory was encoded-internal mental state
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Encoding Information (2)
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Serial Position Effect: tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list Spacing Effect: Distributed practice yields better long term retention than massed practice- learn things over a period of time
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Serial Position Effects
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Primacy Effect: tendency to remember initial information Recency Effect: tendency to recall later information
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LTM
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Long Term Storage of information Once encoded, an unlimited amount of information can be stored in long-term memory Evolution of memory studied by examining other species: ex)Clark's Nutcracker- with 15 mile radius hide up to 30,000 pine seeds in 5000 locations and go back and retrieve them
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Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory)
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Memories of facts and personal Experience: •that involve conscious retrieval •of which we are consciously aware 2 Major Types of explicit memory •Episodic Memory- "episodes of life" •record of your life experiences •long-term memories of specific events • tied to particular contexts •e.g. your date last night •Semantic Memory: •memories of facts, concepts, names, and other general knowledge information • e.g. knowledge of the human brain or name of current U.S. president
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Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory)
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Memory for skills and habits •Stored and retrieved unconsciously Major types of implicit memory •Procedural: •Skills, "How to" function •e.g. brushing your teeth •Priming and Conditioning •Subconscious task preparation habitual behaviors •e.g. phobias, habitual behaviors
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Encoding Information: Improving Memory
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Elaborative Rehearsal •technique for improving memory by enriching encoding of information •aid to effortful processing • e.g., use mental images or word associations -thinking about the meaning of something you are learning Mnemonics • memory aids that use familiar information during encoding of new information to enhance subsequent access to information in memory •especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices- narrative stories Method of Loci: people think about an item that you need to get in each room and then go grocery shopping
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Chunking
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Grouping individual items into larger units •Use of acronyms: HOMES (Great Lakes) •Using sentences with 1st letter of each word standing for something to be remembered FCGDAEB (Fat Cats Get Diarrhea After Eating Bacon) ***also think about the quadratic formula song from 8th grade
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Metamemory
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Knowledge and awareness of your own memory including: •contents and processes of your memory •strategies used to help you remember something- chunking •Knowledge about which strategy to use for each particular type of information and knowing how to use that strategy most effectively •Memory failure when exposed to too much stress
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Types of Forgetting
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•Encoding Failure: Information never enters long-term memory -absent-mindedness- inattention to detail - age - lack of sufficient rehearsal •Storage Decay - after encoding much of what we learn we may quickly forget - Transience- storage decay over time - gradual fading of physical memory trace - forgetting curve: if you don't use the memory it will decay •retrieval Failure - Inaccessibility of information -blocking - tip of the tongue phenomena - age related memory failures - retrieved memories •interference - Proactive: old memory interferes with remembering new memory - Retroactive- new memory interferes with remembering old memory •motivated forgetting - people unknowingly revise memories Repression- rarely occurs if ever - defense mechanism that banishes anxiety- arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
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Misinformation and Imagination Effect
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Misinformation Effect: •A memory distortion •incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event •may inject info from others that sounds accurate to memory being described Imagination Effect •Non-existent actions and events can create false memories
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Memory Distoration
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Elizabeth Loftus -eyewitness testimony is often false ex) showed people a car accident One group was asked "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" the other group was asked "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" One week later, she asked them if they saw broken glass at the scene. the group that saw the cars "smash" into each other said that there was broken glass at the scene
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Memory and Brain Structures
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•Complex memory is distributed across many neural systems •Discrete types of information tend to be more localized in the brain • Cant remember every single little memory
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5 Major Brain Structures of Memory
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Cerebellum •Procedural memory & classically conditioned responses Striatum •Habit formation, S-R connections Cerebral Cortex •Sensory memories, associations, between sensations, episodic, semantic memory, and procedural memory Hippocampus amygdala •declarative memory & spatial memory
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Memory Disorders
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Amnesia •Memory failure caused by physical injury, disease, drug use or psychological trauma Anterograde amnesia •unable to form new long-term memories beginning disorder onset •new information is not transferred to the long-term memory Retrograde amnesia •people to not remember events that happened before brain damage •forget items stored in episodic memory
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