General Psychology, 5e, Ciccarelli & White. CHAPTERS 1, 2, 3, EXAM! – Flashcards
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Psychology
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study of behavior and thought processes
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Scientific Method
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used to study psychology and avoid observation/expectancy bias. standardized way of gathering data, observations, forming theories, testing hypothesis and interpreting
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behavior
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outward or OVERT actions
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processes
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internal or COVERT actions
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Requirements of psychological research
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replicable, falsifiable, precise, parsimonious
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precise
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use operational definitions
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parsimonious
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simple explanations
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falsifiable
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hypotheses stated in a way that can be proven false
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5 steps of the Scientific Method
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ask a question, form a hypothesis, test hypothesis, draw conclusion, and report results
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Types of research
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naturalistic, laboratory, case study, survey
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Naturalistic observation
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studies realistic behavior in natural environment, settings are not replicable, there is a chance of observer bias. blind or multiple observers are used to avoid bias.
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Laboratory observation
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controls number, age, and all other aspects of the experiment. there is a chance of participant bias and artificial behavior
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Case study
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research of one subject to get detailed, specific information. results are not general and are vulnerable to bias
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Survey
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very general, used to find specific information. tend to be inaccurate and misinterpreted
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correlation
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relationship between two or more variables (does not imply cause&effect)
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causation
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can only be measured by scientific experiment. shows that the change in one variable directly affects the other
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variable
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anything that can change
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correlational coefficient
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direction and strength of relationship, represented by numbers (-1.0 to +1.0)
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positive coefficient
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same direction
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negative coefficient
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opposite direction
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how to design an experiment
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create a hypothesis, choose population randomly, have independent and dependent variables, operationalize the dependent variable
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independent variable
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variable that is being controlled
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dependent variable
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variable that is being measured
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issues with experimental design
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placebo effect, experimenter effect
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placebo
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expectations and biases can influence participant behavior
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experimenter effect
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observer bias
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remedy for placebo effect
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single blind study: participants are blind to treatment
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remedy for experimenter effect
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double-blind study: observer and participants are blind to treatment
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4 goals of research
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DEPC: define, explain, predict, control (what, why, when, how to change behavior)
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7 modern perspectives
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cognitive, humanistic, biopsychological, psychodynamic, behavioral, sociocultural, evolutionary
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Psycho-dynamic perspective
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focuses on the unconscious mind and its influence on conscious behavior. unconscious mind and conscious are always in conflict with each other. childhood experiences influence behavior and thought processes (i.e., irrational behavior can be caused by past trauma or development)
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Behavioral perspective
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focuses on overt actions that are learned, or conditioned, from environment. reinforcement and punishment
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operant conditioning
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behavior is influenced by reinforcement or punishment
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Humanistic perspective
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human potential, free-will, self-actualization. all humans are born good. mindfulness, optimism. self-help.
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Cognitive perspective
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memory, thought processes, intelligence, perception, problem-solving, language and learning. beliefs and desires may affect behavior
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Socio-cultural perspective
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child-rearing practices, societal roles, discrimination, ethnic and racial identity, gender roles and norms, regional differences, religious beliefs
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Bio-psychological perspective
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how the structure and function of the nervous system affects behavior. Nature over nurture. genetic influence, structure and functioning of the brain
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Evolutionary perspective
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biological basis of universal mental characteristics, such as the universality of fear, attractiveness of mates, attraction to music and dance. memory, perception and language are explained as adaptations. Mate selection & cheating.
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How old is psychology?
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138 years
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Before psychology there were..?
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philosophers, medical doctors, physiologists
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Father of psychology
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Wilhelm Wundt (1879)
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Objective introspection
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process of examining and measuring one's own thought processes. cognitive behavioral thinking
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Biological perspective
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studies physical basis for behavior. studies genetics, nervous system, immune system, and the brain.
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Central nervous system
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brain and spinal cord. interprets and stores info. sends orders to muscles, glands, and organs.
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Peripheral nervous system
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connects CNS to sensory organs. subdivided into sensory-somatic system and autonomic system. consists of sensory and motor neurons.
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Nervous system
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network of specialized cells that send information to and from all parts of the body
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2 basic cells in the nervous system
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glial cells, neurons
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afferent neurons
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sensory neurons in the PNS that bring info into the CNS
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efferent neurons
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motor neurons that run from the CNS to the PNS muscles and glands.
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interneuron
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neuron found in the spinal cord that receives sensory information and sends commands through motor neurons
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How many neurons are in the brain?
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100 billion
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Structure of the neuron in order
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dendrites, soma, axon, nodes, terminal buttons
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myelin sheath
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fatty white substance that protects the neuron's axon
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dendrites
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receive postsynaptic impulses from other neurons
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soma
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cell body that maintains life of the neuron
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axon
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messenger tube in which impulses travel from the dendrites to terminal buttons
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terminal buttons
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contain synaptic vesicles that house and release neurotransmitters
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demyelination symptoms
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multiple sclerosis, blurriness in the central visual field, double vision, loss of equilibrium, speech impairment and memory loss, loss of coordination and fatigue
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Neural impulse
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how we generate information within the cell. controlled by ions.
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ions
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charged particles such as +Sodium, +Potassium, and -Chloride
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inside neuron charge
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mostly negative
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outside neuron charge
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mostly positive
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Resting potential
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negative state of neuron when impulses are not being fired. -70mv. Sodium cannot get in. for every 2 K+ in, 3 NA+ are pumped out.
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Action potential
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release of impulse when the charge of the neuron becomes positive after it reaches a certain threshold. Sodium channels open and positive sodium gets pumped in with no partial firing
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all-or-none law
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no partial firing with sodium being pumped into neurons
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Action potential threshold
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-50mV
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neurotransmitters
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chemicals used for communication between cells. transmit messages from inside neurons. ex: serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine
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acetylcholine
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muscle action, memory. potential to increase arousal and cognition
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GABA
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brain function, sleep. potential to reduce anxiety and tension
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dopamine
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mood, sleep, learning. potential to increase pleasure and suppress appetite
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glutamate
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memory, learning. potential to enhance both
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serotonin
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mood, sleep. potential to modulate mood and suppress appetite
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spinal cord
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pathway that connects PNS to brain
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somatic nervous system
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carries sensory information and controls skeletal muscles
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autonomic nervous system
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responsible for involuntary regulations of glands, blood vessels & internal organs
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neuromodulators
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drugs that reduce or enhance neurotransmitters
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antagonist
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depressant
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agonist
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stimulant
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cerebellum
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2 hemispheres, responsible for involuntary things such as equilibrium and posture. second largest part of the brain
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cerebrum
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forebrain, largest part of the brain. 2 hemispheres consisting of 4 lobes: occipital, temporal, parietal, and frontal. voluntary movements. associated with basic cognitive functions (memory, attention, etc)
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parietal lobe
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movement, perception of sensory stimuli, recognition. somatosensory cortex
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frontal lobe
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problem solving, speech, reasoning, emotions
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occipital lobe
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visual processing. has primary cortex to process
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temporal lobe
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perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory and speech. has primary cortex to process
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thalamus
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relays sensory info to proper cortex in the forebrain
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limbic system
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hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala
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hypothalamus
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small brain structure below the thalamus and above pituitary gland that is responsible for sleep, hunger, thirst, sex instincts
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hippocampus
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curved structure within each temporal lobe, responsible for long-term memory and memory storage
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amygdala
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brain structure near the hippocampus that is responsible for fear reactions and fear memory
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corpus callosum
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band of nerves that connects brain hemispheres
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contralateral organization
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each hemisphere is responsible for the opposide side of the body
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split-brain research
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shows that the left brain controls logic, language, writing, analysis, and math abilities, processes info sequentially and enables people to speak; right brain is responsible for emotional expression, spatial perception, face recognition, patterns, melodies, processes info globally and cannot influence speech
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neuroplasticity
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ability to change structure and function of cells in response to trauma or experience. depends on age, environment, involves glial cells and neurons
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functional plasticity
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refers to brains ability to move functions from a damaged area to undamaged areas
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structural plasticity
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ability for brain to change its structure due to learning
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transduction
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turning outside stimuli into neural activity
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Webers law of just noticeable difference
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the smallest difference between two stimuli that is detectable 50 percent of the time
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absolute threshold
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the lowest level of stimulation needed to detect something
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sight threshold
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candle flame 30 miles away
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taste threshold
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1 teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water
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hearing threshold
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the sound of a watch ticking 20 feet away in a quiet rom
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smell threshold
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one drop of perfume diffused throughout a 3 room apartment`
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touch threshold
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a bees wing falling on a cheek from 1 centimeter
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cornea
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clear membrane that covers and protects the eye, focuses most light into the eye
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pupil
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hole through which light from the visual image enters the interior eye
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iris
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muscle that contracts to help focus, lets more or less light in
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lens
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clear structure behind the iris, suspended by muscles that finishes focusing images.
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retina
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light sensitive area at the back of the eye which absorbs and processes light information. consists of 3 layers:rods&cones, bipolar cells(interneurons), ganglion cells
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rods
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100 million each eye, noncolor sensitivity to low light, highly concentrated all over the retina except for the center fovea. low visual acuity. not sensitive to different wavelengths of light
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cones
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6 million each eye, color, clarity, highly concentrated at center. sensitive to different wavelengths of light. need more light to function than rods do.
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blind spot
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place in the retina where all the axons of those ganglion cells lead to become the optic nerve. no rods & cones.
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stages of visual perception
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gathering information, retaining information
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saccades
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the gathering of visual information through swift sweeping eye movements. information is taken in fixations when saccades are interrupted by pauses
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change blindness
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failure to notice change to stimuli due to it happening during a saccade
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inattention blindness
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failure to see an object we are looking directly at because our attention is directed elsewhere
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trichromatic theory
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theory proposes 3 types of cones, red green and blue.
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opponent-process theory
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proposes that cones come in color pairs. explains after image.
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mcgurk effect
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our eyes can influence what we hear
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gustatory pathway
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glossopharyngeal IX, facial nerve VII, medulla oblongata, thalamus, gustatory cortex
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olfaction
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cilia, little hairs in the nose contain receptor sites that send signals to the brain. replaces every 5-8 weeks, 1,000 different types
