Flashcards with Answers on Final – Microbiology
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| Antoni van Leeuwenhoek |
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| Known as the father of bacteriology and protozoology Made his own microscopes Discovered the microbial world of bacteria and protozoans |
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| Edward Jenner |
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| Began the field of immunology by vaccination a boy with vaccinia virus which causes cowpox to prevent infection by Variola virus which causes smallpox |
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| Carolus Linnaeus |
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| Developed the taxonomic system for naming animals and plants and grouping similar organisms together |
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| Louis Pasteur |
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| Boiled infusions in flasks with S shaped necks Allowed for air to enter but kept out dust particles Disproved the theory of spontaneous generation Developed pasteurization, proved that grape juice ferments with yeast and with bacteria in it makes acid |
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| Florence Nightingale |
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| Introduced antiseptic practices in nursing Scrubbed wards and replaced contaminated clothing and dressings Documented statistics supporting her practices |
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| Joseph Lister |
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| Developed procedures for antiseptic surgery Sprayed wounds, surgical incisions, and dressing with carbolic acid (Phenol) |
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| Carolus Linnaeus |
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| Grouped similar organisms that can successfully interbreed into categories called species Used binomial nomenclature in his system: First word capital second lower case and words are italicized or underlined |
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| Monomers |
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| Basic building blocks of macromolecules |
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| Macromolecules |
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| Lipids, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids |
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| Lipids |
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| Long hydrophobic chains of carbon and hydrogen |
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| Building blocks of Proteins |
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| Mostly compose of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfer |
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| Building blocks of Lipids |
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| Not composed of regular (monomers) subunits, but are all hydrophobic Four Groups: Fats/Triglycerides (Glycerol + 3 fatty acids) Phospholipids (phosphate plus lipid) Waxes |
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| Building blocks of Carbohydrates |
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| Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CH2O). For all practical purposes, we will consider glucose as the monomer |
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| Building blocks of Nucleic Acids |
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| DNA and RNA: the genetic material of organisms, RNA helps form proteins The monomers that make up nucleic acids are called nucleotide |
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| Nucleotide |
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| Composed of three parts Phosphate Pentose sugar One of five cyclic nitrogenous bases Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uracil (U) |
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| Obligate aerobes |
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| Presence of oxygen is necessary for survival, oxygen is final electron acceptor for ATP production |
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| Obligate anaerobes |
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| oxygen is a deadly poison, because of its oxidative properties |
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| Facultative anaerobes |
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| Organisms whose metabolic efficiency is reduced in anaerobic conditions, but survival is still possible |
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| Biofilms |
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| Complex relationships between many cells of one species, or many species, in which a cellular matrix made of proteins and polysaccharides fibers make a film providing protection from environmental stresses: pH, temperatures, antibiotics |
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| Glycocalyces |
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| Gelatinous, sticky substance surrounding the outside of the cell |
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| Purpose of Glycocalyces |
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| Protects cell from drying out Allows cell to attach to surfaces, like teeth (tartar) Called a capsule when firmly attached Called a slime layer when loosely attached Usually feature of pathogenic bacteria |
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| Flagella |
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| Long structures extending beyond the surface of the cell and glycocalyx that propel a cell through its environment, like the tail on a tadpole Not present on all prokaryotes |
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| Fimbriae |
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| Sticky, proteinaceous, bristle like projections, shorter than flagella Help bacteria to adhere to one another or to other substances around them Aid in formation of biofilms, slimy masses of bacteria growing in a colon, like tartar on teeth |
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| Pilus |
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| Tubules composed of pilin Longer than fimbriae Used like a grappling hook to move across substrate or toward another bacterium Also known as conjugation pili Mediate the transfer of DNA from one cell to another |
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| Gram + cell wall |
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| Thick layer of peptidoglycan containing teichoic acids, which have a negative charge Stain PURPLE |
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| Gram - cell wall |
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| Have only a thin layer of peptidoglycan Have a bilayer membrane outside of the peptidoglycan layer The outside later is composed of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is a lipid combined with a sugar (Lipid A) Stain PINK |
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| Phospholipid bilayer |
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| A bipolar, two layered membrane, outside being hydrophilic and inside being hydrophobic The phospholipid bilayer is said to follow a fluid mosaic model, meaning it is composed of many tiny tile like structures that are free to flow laterally, like floating cheerios in a bowl of milk |
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| Cytosol |
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| Liquid portion of cytoplasm, much like plasma is the liquid portion of blood |
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| Ribosomes |
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| Organelles provide site from protein synthesis Composed of two subunits each of which is made of ribosomal RNA 70S (Sedimentation rate) |
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| Capsule (Glycocalyces) |
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| Composed of organized repeating units of organic chemicals Firmly attached to cell surface Protects cells from drying out May prevent bacteria from being recognized and destroyed by host |
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| Slime Layer |
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| Loosely attached to cell surface Water soluble Protects cells from drying out Sticky later that allows prokaryotes to attach to surfaces |
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| Phototaxis |
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| Movement due to light |
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| Chemotaxis |
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| Movement due to chaemical |
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| Positive taxis/negative taxis |
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| Positive is movement toward and Negative is movement away |
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| Lipid A |
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| Released form the LPS and may trigger fever, vasodilation, inflammation,shock,and blood clotting |
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| Endospores |
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| Unique structures produced by some bacteria that are a defensive strategy against unfavorable conditions |
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| Ribosomes |
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| Sites of protein synthesis |
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| Coccus |
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| Round ball shape |
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| Coccobacillus |
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| Shorter than rod shaped but not ball shaped in between bacillus and coccus |
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| Bacillus |
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| Rod shaped |
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| Vibrio |
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| Curved rod shape |
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| Pleomorphic |
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| Irregular shaped |
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| Spirochete |
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| Spiral shape |
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| Diplo- |
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| Pair, Diplococci |
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| Strepto- |
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| Long chain, Streptococci |
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| Sarcinae |
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| Cocci divide in three planes to form cuboidal packets called sarcinae Cuboidal cluster of 4 or more cocci |
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| Palisade |
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| A clump of bacilli |
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| Endosymbiotic Theory |
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| Eukaryotes formed from union of small aerobic prokaryotes with larger anaerobic prodaryotes Smaller prokaryotes becae internal parasites Aerobic prokaryotes evolve into mitoghondria |
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| Lynn Margulis |
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| Popularized the endosymbiotic theory |
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| Nucleus |
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| "Control center of the cell" contains most of the cells DNA, genetic information |
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| Endospores |
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| Produced by cells such as Bacillus and Clostridium as a defensive strategy |
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| Viral envelope |
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| Acquired from host cell during viral replicaiton or release; envelope is portion of membrane system of host Composed of phospholipid bilayer and proteins; some proteins are virally coded glycoproteins Envelope's proteins and glycoproteins often play role in host recognition |
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| Clostridi |
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| Rod shaped, obligate anaerobes, many form endospores, includes C. perfingens (gangrene), C. botulinum (botulism), C tetani (tetanus) |
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| Bacillus |
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| B. anthracis and B thuringiensis Bt toxin Low G + C Gram positive bacilli |
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| Low G + C Gram positive bacteria |
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| The ratio of guanine cytosine base pairs in their DNA is less than 50% Classified in phylum Firmicutes, which includes Clostridia, Mycoplasmas, Bacilli, and Cocci |
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| High G + C Gram positive bacteria |
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| The ratio of guanine cytosine base pairs in their DNA is more than 50% In the phylum Actinobacteria, includes rod shaped and filamentous (which resemble fungi and produce spores) bacteria |
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| Study of Fungi |
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| Mycology |
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| Diseases caused by fungi |
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| Mycoses |
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| Virus is Latin for what? |
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| Poision |
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| Virus characteristics |
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| Cause many infections of humans, animals, plants, and bacteria Cannot carryout any metabolic pathway Neither grow nor respond to the environment Cannot reproduce independently Recruit the cell's metabolic pathways to increase their numbers |
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| Virus |
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| Miniscule, acellular, infectious agent having one or several pieces of either DNA or RNA No cytoplasmic membrane, cytosol, organelles Have extracellular and intracellular state |
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| Extracellular state virus |
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| Called virion Protein coat (capsid) surrounding nucleic acid Nucleic acid and capsid also called nucleocapsid Some have phospholipid envelope Outermost layer provides protection and recognition sites for host cells |
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| Intracellular state virus |
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| Capsid removed Virus exists as nucleic acid |
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| How viruses are distinguished |
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| Type of genetic material they contain (DNA or RNA) Kinds of cells they attack (liver, skin) Size of virus Nature of capsid coat Shape of virus Presence or absence of envelope |
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| Lysogenic conversion |
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| Can pass genes to bacteria |
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| Induction |
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| Excision of prophage to enter the lytic cycle |
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| Sterilization |
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| Destruction of all microorganisms and viruses in or on an object |
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| Aseptic |
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| Refers to an environment or procedure free of pathogenic contaminants |
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| Disinfection |
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| Destruction of most microorganisms and viruses on nonliving tissue |
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| Antisepsis |
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| Reduction in the number of microorganisms and viruses, particularly potential pathogens, on living tissue |
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| Degerm |
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| Removal of microbes by mechanical means |
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| Sanitization |
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| Removal of pathogens from objects to meet public health standards |
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| Pasteurization |
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| Use of heat to destroy pathogens and reduce the number of spoilage microorganisms in foods and beverages |
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| Phenol Coefficient |
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| Evaluating the efficacy of disinfectants and antiseptics by determining an agent's ability to control microbes as a ratio to that of phenol Greater than 1.0 indicates that agent is more effective than phenol Has been replaced by newer methods |
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| What microbes grow in refrigeration |
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| Psychrophilic |
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| Phenol and Phenolics |
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| Intermediate to low level disinfectants Denature proteins and disrupt cell membranes Effective in presence of organic matter and remain active for prolonged time Commonly used in health care settings, labs, and homes (lysol, triclosan) |
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| Iodophor |
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| A compound with slow releasing iodine capabilities, such as betadine, which is used to clean skin before injection or surgery |
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| Beta-lactams |
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| Most prominent group in the group with inhibition of cell wall synthesis They bind to enzymes that cross link NAM subunits |
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| Broad Spectrum drug |
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| Effective against many kinds of pathogens, like tetracycline which acts against G+, G-, rickettsiae and chlamydiae |
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| Mutualism |
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| Both members benefit Ex: protozoa digest cellulose inside of termites |
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| Commensalism |
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| One benefits without hurting the other Ex: Staphylococcus epidermidis lives on our skin |
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| Parasitism |
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| One benefits and hurts the other Ex: Plasmodium infects our blood and cause malaria |
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| Normal Microbiota (flora) |
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| Microbes that normally colonize parts of the body without causing disease |
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| Normal microbiota of skin |
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| Corynebacterium, Micrococcus, Propionibacterium, Staphylococcus, Candida, Malassezia |
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| Antitoxins |
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| Antibodies against toxins |
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| Acute |
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| Develops rapidly but lasts a short while |
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| Chronic |
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| Develops slowly, but lasts continually or recurrently, like Hepatitis C |
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| Latent |
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| Pathogen remain inactive for a long period of time, like herpes simplex |
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| Endemic |
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| Diseases that occur continually in a population at a relatively stable incidence |
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| Sporadic |
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| Only a few scattered cases in an area or population Ex: human cases of rabies |
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| Epidemic |
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| An unusually high incidence rate of a disease for an area or population Ex: food poisoning in a town population |
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| Pandemic |
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| An epidemic occurring on several continents, worldwide |
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| Nosocomial infection |
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| Acquired by patients while in health care facilities |
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| Fomite |
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| An inanimate object that is capable of carrying infectious organisms hence transferring them from one individual to another |
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| Body's first line of defense |
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| Includes the skin and mucous membranes |
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| Microbial Antagonism |
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| The normal flora can change pH and compete for nutrients against possible pathogenic organisms |
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| Body's second line of defense |
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| Defense components of the blood Innate Immunity |
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| Phagocytosis, The five steps |
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| Chemotaxis Adherence Ingestion Killing Elimination |
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| Chemotaxis |
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| Involves the use of pseudopodia to crawl towards pathogens |
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| Adherence |
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| Phagocytes attach to pathogens by binding to glycoproteins found on the outside of organisms |
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| Ingestion |
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| After adherence the pseudopodia envelop the organism and internalize it as a vesicle, called a phagosome |
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| Killing |
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| Lysosomes fuse with the phagosome forming a phagolysosome which then digests it |
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| Elimination |
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| The remnants are exocytosed, or expelled |
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| Opsonization |
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| The coating of organisms with complement proteins for easier phagocytosis (part of Adherence step of Phagocytosis) |
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| Third line of defense |
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| Adaptive Immunity |
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| Semi-Synthetics (antibiotics) |
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| Chemically altered antibiotics that are more effective than naturally occurring ones Semi-synthetic derivatives of beta-lactams inhibit cell wall synthesis |
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| Penicillin |
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| Beta-lactam Effective only against Gram + bacteria Not strong enough to penetrate the LPS layer of Gram - bacteria so ineffective against Gram - |
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| Granulocytes |
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| Basophils Eosinophils Neutrophils |
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| Neutrophils and eosinophils |
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| Phagocytize pathogens Neutrophils attack bacteria Eosinophils attack parasites |
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| Basophils |
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| Release inflammatory signals |
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| Diapedesis |
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| Squeezing between the cells of capillaries to attack cells in the tissues Neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils are all capable of diapedesis |
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| Agranulocytes |
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| Lymphocytes Monocytes |
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| Lymphocytes |
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| Most involved in adaptive immunity |
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| Monocytes |
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| Leave the blood and mature into macrophages, they are phagocytic |
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| Macrophages |
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| Phagocytic cells of the second line of defense Wandering macrophages leave the blood via diapedesis and phagocytize throughout the body Fixed macrophages do not move throughout the body and often phagocytize within a specific organ Include alveolar macrophages (lungs), Microglia (CNS), Kupffer cells (liver) All macrophages, plus monoctes attached to endothelial cells, constitute the mononuclear phagocytic system |
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| Neutrophils |
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| Produce chemicals similar to hydrogen peroxide or bleach that kill nearby invaders Generate extracellular fibers that bind to and kill bacteria |
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| Interferons |
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| Protein molecules released by host cells to nonspecifically inhibit the spread of viral infections Cause many symptoms typically associated with viral infections Interferon alpha and beta are present early in the infection and gamma appears later in the course of infection |
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| Complement |
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| Set of serum roteins designated numerically according to the order of their discovery Complement activation results in lysis of the foreign cells The two most important pathways are classical and alternate |
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| Classical pathway |
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| Complement enzymes cleave other complement proteins in a cascading effect Complement activation leads to increase in vascular permeability, inflammation, and opsonization The end product is a membrane attack complex (MAC) |
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| MAC (membrane attack complex) |
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| A giant perforation in the cell membrane causing leaking and lysis |
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| Alternate pathway |
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| Activation occurs independent of antibodies Useful in early stages of infection before antibodies have been made Initiated by the cleavage of C3 into C3a and C3b which occurs naturally at a slow rate in the plasma |
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| Chronic inflammation |
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| Develops slowly and lasts a long time Can cause damage to tissues |
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| Acute inflammation |
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| Develops quickly and is short lived Is usually beneficial Important in the second line of defense -Dilation and increased permeability of the blood vessels -Migration of phagocytes -Tissue repair |
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| Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes |
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| Released by macrophages and cause vasodilation delivering phagocytes, nutrients and oxygen from the blood to the site of the infection in the tissue |
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| Mast cells |
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| Release histamines, in response to complement, causing vasodilation and resulting in edema |
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| Pyrogens |
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| Various types of pyrogens signal for the production of IL-1 by phagocytes Increased temperature is triggered b pyrogens, chemicals like bacterial toxins released during cell death |
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| IL-1 (Interleukin-1) |
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| is a pyrogen released by phagocytes that have phagocytized bacteria These cytokines bind to endotheilial receptors of circumventricular organs within the hypothalamus and activate the arachidonic acid pathway |
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| Two main types of lymphocytes |
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| B lymphocytes (B cells) T Lymphocytes (T cells) |
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| Antigens |
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| Are molecules that rigger a specific immune response Antigens are not whole bacteria, just small parts Ex. cell walls, flagella, viral proteins |
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| Lymphocytes |
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| The smallest leukocytes (white blood cells) and have large nuclei Circulate throughout the body in blood and lymph |
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| B lymphocytes |
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| Form and mature in the bone marrow Humoral Immunity Have surface antibodies and are found primarily in the spleen, nodes, and MALT Called plasma cells when actively fighting exogenous antigens |
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| T lymphocytes |
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| Form in the bone marrow but mature in the Thymys Cell mediated Immunity |
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| Exogenous antigens |
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| Outside of cell, include toxins, secretions, components of cell walls, membranes, flagella, and pili |
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| Endogenous antigens |
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| Inside of cells, include fungi, protozoa, bacteria, and viruses that reproduce inside the body's cells |
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| Autoantigens |
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| Self antigens, found on the body's normal cell's |
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| Immunoglobulin |
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| IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD Five different classes IgG is the most abundant |
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| T Lymphocytes (T cells) |
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| Act against endogenous invaders Ex: Viral, bacterial, fungal infected cells, and cancer cells Make up 70-85% of lymphocytes in blood and lymph |
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| Cytotoxic T cells |
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| Directly kills other cells |
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| Helper T lymphocyte |
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| Functions to "help" regulate the activities of B cells and cytotoxic T cells |
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| Th1 (T helper cell) |
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| Help cytotoxic T cells |
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| Th2 |
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| Help B cells |
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| Antibodies |
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| Secreted immunoglobulins (By plasma cells) Free immunoglobulins and similar to BCR's (B cell receptors) in shape, though antibodies are secreted and lack the bulk of the transmembrane portions of BCR. |
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| Clonal deletion |
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| The body eliminates self-reactive lymphocytes via clonal deletion, so named because elimination of a cell deletes its potential offspring (clones). In this process, lymphocytes are exposed to autoantigens, and those lymphocytes that react to autoantigens undergo apoptosis (programmed cell suicide) and are thereby deleted from the repertoire of lymphocytes. |
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| Which antibody is found in secretions? |
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| A |
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| Septicemia |
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| Presence of any microbial infection of the blood that produces illness |
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| Bacteremia |
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| Bacterial septicemia that is often harmless |
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| Toxemia |
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| Release of bacterial toxins into the blood |
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| Lymphangitis |
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| Infection and inflammation of the lymphatic vessels |
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| Petechiae |
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| Small hemorrhagic lesions just under the skin |
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| Exotoxins |
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| Toxin released from living microorganisms during toxemia |
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| Endotoxins |
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| Toxins released from Gram - bacteria during toxemia |
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| DIC (Disseminated intravascular disease) |
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| Widespread and severe coagulation Can be fatal |
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| Debridement |
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| Where health care workers remove the "crust" from a wound so that antimicrobial drugs can be effective |
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| Pyocyanin |
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| A blue-green pigment that is produced by the bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa when it invades the bloodstream and the blue-green pigment is secreted in the wound (usually in burn victims) |
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| Enterotoxins |
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| They bind to surface proteins on epithelial cells lining the intestines, triggering the loss of electrolytes and water in a manner similar to cholera toxin |
