question

association

answer

A connection or linkage between the representations of two events (two stimuli or a stimulus and a response) so that the occurrence of one of the events activates the representation of the other.

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declarative or episodic learning

answer

Learning about a specific event or fact, usually accessible to consciousness.

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dualism

answer

The view of behavior according to which actions can be separated into two categories: voluntary behavior controlled by the mind, and involuntary behavior controlled by reflex mechanisms. descartes cartesian dualism

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empiricism

answer

A philosophy according to which all ideas in the mind arise from experience.

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fatigue

answer

A temporary decrease in behavior caused by repeated or excessive use of the muscles involved in the behavior.

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hedonism

answer

The philosophy proposed by Hobbes according to which the actions of organisms are determined entirely by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.

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learning

answer

An enduring change in the mechanisms of behavior involving specific stimuli and/or responses that results from prior experience with similar stimuli and responses.

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maturation

answer

A change in behavior caused by physical or physiological development of the organism in the absence of experience with particular environmental events.

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nativism

answer

A philosophy according to which human beings are born with innate ideas.

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nervism

answer

The philosophical position adopted by Pavlov that all behavioral and physiological processes are regulated by the nervous system

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nonsense syllable

answer

A three-letter combination (two consonants separated by a vowel) that has no meaning.

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performance

answer

An organism's activities at a particular time.

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procedural learning

answer

Learning ways of doing things rather than learning about specific events. Procedural learning is typically not governed by conscious controlled processes.

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reflex

answer

A mechanism that enables a specific environmental event to elicit a specific response.

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Long-term habituation

answer

A type of habituation that results in a response decrement that lasts for a week or more

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Unconditioned stimulus

answer

A stimulus that elicits vigorous responding in the absence of prior training.

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Short-term habituation

answer

A habituation effect that lasts a relatively short amount of time, some times less than a minute.

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evolution

answer

Change in a physical or behavioural trait. that occurs across successive generations because of differential productive success.

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Unpaired control procedure

answer

A control procedure for classical conditioning in which the CS and the US occur but never together

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Stimulus-stimulus learning

answer

The lrningof an association between two stimuli, such that presentation of one of the stimuli activates a neural representation of the other.

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Species typical behaviour

answer

Behaviours that are characteristic of most members of the species.

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Reflex arc

answer

Neural structures, consisting of the afferent (sensory) neuron, interneuron, and efferent (motor)neuron, that enables a stimulus to elicit a reflex response.

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Associative Learning

answer

Learning in which one event (a stimulus or a response) becomes linked to another, with the result that the first event activates a representationbof the second.

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Appetitive Conditioning

answer

A type of conditioning in which the unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer is a pleasant event, a stimulus the subject tends to approach

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Interneuron

answer

a neuron in the spinal cord thst trsnsmitts impulses from afferent (or sensory) to efferent (or motor)neurons

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between-subject experiment

answer

an experimental design in which tqo or more independent groups of participants are compared. The focus is on the difference in the average performanceof the various groups rather than the behaviour of this independent participant.

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control condition

answer

A condition in which subjects do not receive a training procedure b ut aree Treated the sMe way in all other respects as subjects that are trained. performance in the control condition is compared to performance in the experimental condition in the basic learning experiment.

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Hydrolic model

answer

A model in ethology according to which certain factors lead to the build up of a particular type of motivation or drive that increases the likelihood of corresponding modal action patterns. performance of the modal action patterns reduces or dicharges the motivational state.

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Focal search mode

answer

A response mode in the feeding system that is activated once a potential source of food has been identified.

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S-R system

answer

The shortest neural pathway that connects the sense organs stimulated by an eliciting stimulus and the muscles involved in making the elicited response

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Startle response

answer

A sudden jump or tensing of the muscles that may occur when an unexpected stimulus is presented.

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Maturation

answer

A change in behaviour caused by physical or psychological development.

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Releasing Stimulus

answer

the same as Sign stimulus-a specific feature of an object or animal that elicits a modal action pattern

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US inflation

answer

A procedure the increases the effectiveness of an uncontrolled stimulus in eliciting unconditioned behaviour

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Random control

answer

a control procedure for pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are presented at random times relative to each other

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S-S learning

answer

same as stimulus-stimulus learning-the lea rning between an assocition between two stimuli activated a neural reptesentation of the other.

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State system

answer

Neural structuree that determine the organisms general level of respomsoveness or readiness to respond

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Consummatory behaviour

answer

Behaviour that brings an elicited behaviour sequence to an end; behaviour that consummated or finishes a sequence of elicited responses.

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Adversion Conditioning

answer

A type of conditioning in which the unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer is an unpleasant event, a stimulus that elicits aversion and withdrawal responses.

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Elicited behaviour

answer

A specific behaviour or action pattern thst occurs reliably upon presentatio. of a particular stimulus ( its eliciting stimulus)

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Performance

answer

An organism's activities at a particular time.

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Fatigue

answer

A temporary decrease in behaviour caused by repeated or excessive use of the muscles involved in the behaviour.

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CS-US relevance

answer

Facilitated learning that occurs with certain combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli (e.g. taste and illness) as compared with other combintions (e.g. taste and shock).

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Latent inhobition effect

answer

Retardation of pavlovian conditioning that occurs because of prior CS preexposure or presentations of the conditioned stimulus by itself

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discriminative control

answer

A co trol procedure for pavlovian conditioning in which one conditioned stimulus (the CS) is paired with the uncontrolled stimulus, whereas another conditioned stimulus (the CS) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus. The development of responding during the CS but not during the CS os considered evidence of Pavlovian conditioning.

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Short-term Sensitization

answer

A form of sensitization that last a reltively short amount of time, sometimes less than a minute.

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US Devaluation

answer

A procedure that reduces the effectiveness of an unconditioned stimulus in eliciting unconditioned behaviour

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Spontaneous recovery

answer

Recovery of a response prodiced by a period of rest after habituation or extinction

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Orienting response

answer

A reaction to a novel stimulus that usually involves turning toward the source of the stimulus

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Single-subject experiment

answer

A type of experiment in which learning is investigated through extensive obsevation of the behaviour in a single individual. The individuals behaviour must be sufficiently well understood to permit accurate assumptions about how the subject would have behaved if he had not received the training procedure.

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Practice

answer

Repetition of a response or behaviour, usually with theintent of improving performance.

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Reflex

answer

A unit of elicit behaviour involving a specific environ,ental event and its corresponding specific elicited response.

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Modal Action Pattern

answer

A response pattern that occurs in much the same fashion most of the time and in most members of a species. Modal actionpatterns are ofte. used as basic units of behaviour in ethological investigations of behaviour.

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Selective associations

answer

Associations that are formed more readily between one combination of conditioned and uncondtioned stimuli than between other combinations

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Taste Aversion Learning

answer

A type of pavlovian conditioning in which the taste of a novel food serves as the conditioned stimulus as gastrointestinal illness serves as the uncondtioned stimulus. Taste aversion can be learned even if the illness is delayed seversl hours after exposure to the taste.

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Autoshaping

answer

Same as sign tracking-A form of apetitive classical conditioning in which a localized stimulus serves as the conditioned stimulus. As a result, the subject comeS to approach (track) and some times manipulate the conditioned stimulus.

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Sign teacking

answer

A form of appetitive classical condting in which a localized stimulus serves as the conditioned stimulus. As a sult, the subject comes to approach (track) and some times manipulate the conditioned stimulus

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Unconditioned Response

answer

A response that occurs to a stimulus without the necessity of prior traini g or conditioning

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Ethology

answer

A specialization in biology concerned with the analysis of species-typical behaviour patterns that evolve in natural habitats.

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Sign stimulus

answer

A specific feature of an object or animal that elicits a modal action pattern.

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Experimental Observation

answer

Observation of behaviour under conditions specifically designed by an investigator to test particular factors or variables that might influence the learning or performance of the behaviour.

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Experimental condition

answer

A condition in which subjects receive a training procedure. performance in teh experimental condition is compared to performance in the controlled condition in the basic learning experiment.

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Learning

answer

An enduring change in the mechanics of behaviour involving specific stimuli and or responses that result from prior experience with those stimuli responses.

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Stimulus generalization of habituation

answer

Same as stimulus generalization-the occurance of behaviour learned through habituation pr conditioning in the presence of stimuli that are different from the stimulus used during training

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Motor neuron

answer

same as effferent neuron- a neuron that transmits impulses fron the central nervous system to muscles

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Long-term sensitization

answer

A form of sensitization that is persistent or slow to decay

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General Search mode

answer

The initial response mode of the feeding system. In this mode, the organism reacts to general features of the environment with responses that enable it to come in contactnwith a variety of potential sources of food.

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Opponent process

answer

A compenstory mechanism that ensures that deviations of a system from a preferred or homeostatic level are counteracted so as to return the system to its preferred level.

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S-R learning

answer

The learning of an association between a stimulus and a response, with the resukt that the stimulus comes to elicit that response

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Appetitive Behaviour

answer

The initial component of an elicited behaviour sequence. Appetitive behaviour is variable, occurs in response to general spatial cues, and serves to bring the organism in contact with releasing stimuli that elicit consummatory responses.

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Sensory neuron

answer

same as afferent neuron-A neuron that teansfers messages from sense organs to the central nervous system.

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Sensitization effect

answer

An increase in the vigor of the elicited behaviour that may result from repeated presentations of the eliciteing stimulus.

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Behaviour System

answer

A sequence of rsponse modes and corresponding behavioural and physiological control mechanisms that are activated in a coordiated manner to achieve particular functio ssuch as feedi g or defense against predation

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Motivation

answer

a hypothetical state that increases the probability of a coordinated set of activities or activates a system of behaviours that functions to satisfy a goal such as feeding, predatory defense, infant care, or copulatio.

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Condition Response

answer

A response that comes to be made to the conditioned stimulus as a result of classical conditioning.

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Conditioned Suppression

answer

An aversion Pavlovian conditioning procedure in which conditioned response is measured by the suppression of positively reinforced instrumental behaviour

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Naturalistic Observation

answer

Observation of behaviour as it occurs under natural conditions, in the absence of interventions or manipulations introduced by the investigator.

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Conditioned stimulus

answer

A stimulus that initially does not elicit a conditioned response or activate a respresentation of an unconditioned stimulus but comes to do so after pairings with an unconditioned stimulus.

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habituation

answer

the decline in an organism's response to a stimulus once the stimulus has become familiar.

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dishabituation

answer

an increase in an organism's response to a familiar stimulus caused by a change in the stimulus.

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second-order conditioning

answer

procedure in which a neutral stimulus is paired with some already established CS, and, through repeated pairings, the new CS begins to elicit the CR.

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extinction

answer

the weakening of the tendency of the CS to elicit the CR by unreinforced presentations of the CS.

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spontaneous recovery

answer

the reappearance of a previously extinguished response (CR) after a time interval in which neither the CS nor the UCS is presented.

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stimulus generalization

answer

animals respond to a range of new stimuli, provided that these stimuli are sufficiently similar to the original CS.

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discrimination

answer

a process of learning to respond to certain stimuli that are paired with the UCS, and not to others that are not paired with the UCS.

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blocking effect

answer

produced when two CS, A and B, are both presented together with the UCS; if stimulus A has previously been associated with the UCS while B has not, the formation of an association between stimulus B and the UCS will be inhibited

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instrumental/operant conditioning

answer

involves the learning of new voluntary behaviors; form of learning in which a reinforcer is given only if the subject performs the instrumental response.

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operants

answer

the instrumental response defined by the effect it has on the environment; if followed by a positive consequence, it is more likely to be repeated in the future (and vice-versa).

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reinforcement

answer

presentation of something good or the termination or prevention of something bad, which increases the likelihood of the response occurring again

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shaping

answer

procedure in which a subject learns a rather difficult response through reinforcement or successive approximation to the response

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successive approximation

answer

the process of shaping a response by rewarding closer and closer versions of the desired response.

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behavioral contrast

answer

a pattern of responding in which an organism seems to evaluate a reward relative to other rewards that are available.

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partial reinforcement

answer

a condition in which repeated responses are reinforced only some of the time.

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schedules of reinforcement

answer

rules about how often and under what conditions a response will be reinforced; different patterns of reinforcement

question

ratio schedules

answer

a schedule of reinforcement in which a subject is rewarded for producing a certain number of responses (fixed/variable)

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interval schedules

answer

a schedule of reinforcement in which a subject is rewarded for producing a response after a certain period of time (fixed/variable)

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latent learning

answer

learning that takes place without any corresponding change in behavior.

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learned helplessness

answer

a condition created by exposure to inescapable, aversive events; this impairs/prevents learning in subsequent situations in which escape is possible.

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vicarious learning

answer

acquiring a fear response, triggered by a specific stimulus, merely by watching another being show fear.

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taste-aversion learning

answer

learning to avoid a specific taste based on one experience of becoming ill after eating contaminated food (based on classical conditioning)

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presynaptic facilitation

answer

some neurons, after learning, end up sending stronger signals than they did before.

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

answer

a form of neural plasticity in which a post-synaptic neuron becomes more sensitive to the signal received.

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Fixed interval

answer

reward will occur after a fixed amount of time

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Variable Interval

answer

reinforcers will be distributed after a varying amount of time

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Fixed Ratio

answer

Reinforced according to the number of times an activity is performed A telemarketer is reinforced with $ every 3rd person called

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Variable Ratio

answer

Reinforced according to the number of times an activity is performed The telemarketer is reinforced with $ after every 3rd person on average

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Vicarious Reinforcement

answer

The more you relate to a model the more likely that you will engage in similar behaviors as them

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Shaping

answer

The building up of a desired behavior by systematically reinforcing smaller components of the desired behavior or similar behaviors

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operant conditioning

answer

Form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences

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reinforcement

answer

event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response. Response is strengthened because it leads to rewarding consequences.

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skinner box

answer

A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.

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reinforcement contingencies

answer

Circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers.

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three term contingency

answer

Antecedents -> behaviour -> reinforement

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the law of effect

answer

The effects of our actions determine whether we will repeat them.

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shaping

answer

the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of the terminal behavior when a desired behavior does not exist at a free operant level. Called successive approximation

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extinction

answer

gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by reinforcement.

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Resistance to extinction

answer

When an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated.

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Discriminative stimuli

answer

Cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.

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stimulus generalisation

answer

responding to a new stimulus like it is the original

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positive reinforcement

answer

Increases a response by presenting a stimulus afterward Food, praise, success etc.

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negative reinforcement

answer

Increases a response by the removal a stimulus afterward Guilt, anxiety, loud buzzer, annoyance, etc.

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escape learning

answer

an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulus

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avoidance learning

answer

organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occuring,

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punishment

answer

When an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response.

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positive punishment

answer

presentation of a stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future.

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negative punishment

answer

removal of a stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occuring in the future.

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primary reinforcer

answer

Satisfies a basic or biological need or desire Food, water, oxygen, warm, etc.

question

secondary reinforcer

answer

A previous neutral stimulus that becomes a reinforcer Praise good grades, money, feelings of success

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material reinforcer

answer

an actual object presented to the learner foo, toys, star stickers

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activity reinforcer

answer

Opportunity to engage in a desired activity. Event or privilege such as helping the teacher, playing a game, going to the movies or having lunch with parents used as a reinforcer

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social reinforcer

answer

A gesture or signal for one person to another Praise, a smile or a hug

question

generalised reinforcer

answer

is a type of conditioned reinforcer, the effectiveness of which does not depend upon a single kind of deprivation, such as tokens and money as they serve as generalised reinforcers because they provide access to a wide range of other reinforcers.

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satiation

answer

the condition that exists when an overabundance of a reinforcer has been provided with a corresponding decrease in the future occurrence of the behaviour.

question

schedule of reinforcement

answer

specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time

question

continuous reinforcement

answer

when every instance of a designated response is reinforced

question

intermittent reinforcement

answer

when a designated response is reinforced some of the time

question

fixed ratio schedule

answer

the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses.

question

variable ratio schedule

answer

reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses. The number of non reinforced responses varies around a predetermined average.

question

fixed interval schedule

answer

the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.

question

variable interval schedule

answer

reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed. The interval length varies around a predetermined average.

question

observational learning

answer

when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.

question

Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

answer

Bandura's four key processes that are crucial in observational learning.

question

Edward Thorndike

answer

Connectionism - Learning is the result of associations for between stimuli (S) and responses (R), Such associations (habits) become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the SR pairings

question

Law of Effect

answer

Behaviors followed by pleasant things are strengthened Behaviors followed by unpleasant things are weakened By Edward Thorndike

question

Puzzle Box

answer

Edward Thorndike Animal in the box must operate a devise to open the door At first the animal uses trial and error With experience ineffective behaviors occur less and effective behaviors are more frequent

question

Occurs when: two stimulus (US & CS) are paired Nature of Response: involulntary elicited by the S Association Required: CS-CR

answer

Classical Conditioning

question

Occurs when: A Response is followed by a reinforcing Stimulus Nature of Response: Voluntary emitted by the organism Associations Required: R - S

answer

Operational Conditioning

question

Free Operant Level

answer

The frequency of an operant behavior in the absence of reinforcement

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Terminal Behavior

answer

The form and frequency of a desired response at the end of a planned reinforcement program

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Superstitious Behavior

answer

Responses that result from randomly administered reinforcement

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Chaining

answer

A process of training a sequence of several responses

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Positive feedback

answer

Cues about which responses are favorable and which are not

question

Intrinsic Reinforcer

answer

Internal feelings of reward and well being

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Timing

answer

If immediate reinforcement is not possible then cues to pending reward is helpful

question

Consistency

answer

Continuous reinforcement Every response is reinforced

question

Intermittent reinforcement

answer

Some responses reinforced

question

Magnitude and Appeal

answer

Bigger and better is...better Supports faster learning and exhibited Relative based on experience

question

Depression effect/Negative contrast

answer

Shifting from a $20 hour to $15 hour pay leads you to work less than if you has always been paid $15 an hour

question

Elation effect/Positive contrast

answer

Shifting from $10 hour to $15 hour pay lead you to work harder than if you'd always been paid $15 hour

question

Differential rate of high responding (DRH)

answer

Reinforcement only when a specific large number of responses has occured with a particular period of time

question

Differential rate of low responding (DRL)

answer

Reinforcement the first response after a certain time interval has elapsed in which the organism has NOT made the response at all Requires organisms not to perform a response may take time

question

Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRQ)

answer

Reinforced to doing anything EXCEPT to making a certain response during a certain time period Requires organisms never to perform the response

question

Antecedent stimulus

answer

A stimulus that precedes a response can influence the likelihood that the response will occur again Does not directly elicit the response but sets the occasion for a response to be reinforced Ex bell rings (s+) before students leave (R) and are happy (S) - (S+)R arrow S

question

Stimulus generalization

answer

Conflating one S+ with another

question

Stimulus discrimination

answer

Distinguishing one S+ from another

question

Cueing

answer

A discriminative stimuli that sets the occasion for certain behaviors Ex flashing lights to get students attention

question

Setting events

answer

A discriminative stimuli can be more likely to occur in some settings Ex Raise your hand in class to speak.. but not at dinner table

question

Escape and avoidance

answer

fire alarm sounds (you know its just a test) and you leave the area to escape the noise (escape) If you know what time it is going to go off you avoid the area at that time (avoidance)

question

Escape learning

answer

The process of acquiring a response that terminates an aversive stimulus The more intense the stimulus the more motivation to escape

question

Avoidance learning

answer

The process of learning to stay away from an aversive stimulus Requires a pr-eversive stimulus (a non-aversive warning) Active avoidance learning- actively make a response Passive avoidance learning - not making a response

question

Real-life avoidance learning

answer

Slow down on university drive to avoid a speeding ticket I avoid talking to mean people

question

Consequences of avoidance learning

answer

Discontinue to shock but the rat continues to jump The camera used to give tickets, but I don't know so I still slow down

question

Extinguishing avoidance responses

answer

Difficult to extinquish Avoid stimulus that no longer is unpleasant

question

Two Factor Theory of Avoidance Learning

answer

Factor 1= Classical Conditioning. The tone (NS-CS) becomes associated with shock (US) and produces fear (CR)

question

Two factor Theory Avoidance Learning

answer

Factor 2= Operational Conditioning Jumping turns off the tone (which the rat doesn't like due to Factor 1) and this reinforces jumping by negative reinforcement. It doesn't extinguish because every time the rat does something that turns off the tone it is reward by negative reinforcement

question

Timeout

answer

Placing offender in a location with no reinforcers (quiet, dull location)

question

Response fine

answer

Response fine-withdrawing a previously earned reinforcer (paying a fine)

question

Verbal reprimand

answer

-scolding or admonishment Quiet, immediate and direct

question

Restitution

answer

Must return environment to the same state as prior misbehavior Restitutional over-correction is making it better

question

Positive practice over-correction

answer

Repeat an action but correctly

question

How is punishment related to positive reinforcement?

answer

Reinforcement simply means any means of INCREASING or encouraging the designated behavior; punishment is any means of inhibiting or DECREASING the designated behavior.

question

What alternatives to punishment are there for discouraging undesirable response?

answer

Reinforcement

question

How do classical and instrumental conditioning interact in avoidance learning according to the Two-factor theory?

answer

In classical conditioning they learn the tone brings them shock and fear and to avoid the tone In instrumental conditioning, they learn that if they jump the tone will go away but it brings them a shock. It doesn't extinguish because the rat is rewarded with a shock

question

Will a rat learn to run to avoid shock as easily as it will learn to press a lever to avoid shock?

answer

When afraid animals engage in species specific defense reactions SSDR If the SSDR made by the animal is natural (instinctive) it will learn it more quickly. If not the avoidance response is difficult to acquire.

question

operant conditioning

answer

Form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences

question

reinforcement

answer

event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response. Response is strengthened because it leads to rewarding consequences.

question

skinner box

answer

A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.

question

reinforcement contingencies

answer

Circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers.

question

three term contingency

answer

Antecedents -> behaviour -> reinforement

question

the law of effect

answer

The effects of our actions determine whether we will repeat them.

question

shaping

answer

the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.

question

extinction

answer

gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by reinforcement.

question

Resistance to extinction

answer

When an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated.

question

Discriminative stimuli

answer

Cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.

question

stimulus generalisation

answer

responding to a new stimulus like it is the original

question

positive reinforcement

answer

A response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus.

question

negative reinforcement

answer

a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus.

question

escape learning

answer

an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulus

question

avoidance learning

answer

organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occuring,

question

punishment

answer

When an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response.

question

positive punishment

answer

presentation of a stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occurring in the future.

question

negative punishment

answer

removal of a stimulus after a behaviour reduces the likelihood of the behaviour occuring in the future.

question

primary reinforcer

answer

Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.

question

secondary reinforcer

answer

events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers

question

tangible reinforcer

answer

an object or an activity that increases the future probability of a behaviour when the reinforcer is presented subsequent to the emission of that behaviour. i.e., trinkets, pins, emblems, marbles, toys.

question

activity oriented reinforcer

answer

Event or privilege such as helping the teacher, playing a game, going to the movies or having lunch with parents used as a reinforcer

question

social reinforcer

answer

Can be of three general varieties, they can be physical contact, proximity or verbal statements.

question

generalised reinforcer

answer

is a type of conditioned reinforcer, the effectiveness of which does not depend upon a single kind of deprivation, such as tokens and money as they serve as generalised reinforcers because they provide access to a wide range of other reinforcers.

question

satiation

answer

the condition that exists when an overabundance of a reinforcer has been provided with a corresponding decrease in the future occurrence of the behaviour.

question

schedule of reinforcement

answer

specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time

question

continuous reinforcement

answer

when every instance of a designated response is reinforced

question

intermittent reinforcement

answer

when a designated response is reinforced some of the time

question

fixed ratio schedule

answer

the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses.

question

variable ratio schedule

answer

reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses. The number of non reinforced responses varies around a predetermined average.

question

fixed interval schedule

answer

the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.

question

variable interval schedule

answer

reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed. The interval length varies around a predetermined average.

question

observational learning

answer

when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.

question

Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

answer

Bandura's four key processes that are crucial in observational learning.

question

Classical Conditioning

answer

Is a technique used in behavioral training. A naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Then a previously neutral stimulus is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually the neutral stimulus comes to evoke a response without the presence of the occurring natural stimulus. The two elements are then known as a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response

question

What is the difference between learning and performance?

answer

Learning is relatively eunduring change in behavioral potential resulting from experince with environmental events specifically related to that behavior. Learning is just one of many factors of perfomance. Performance depends on many things including motor and the stimulus. The things an individual does, a person's observable actions. Collectively = performance

question

Connectionism

answer

Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and Response (R). Such associations (habits) become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the SR pairings

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What does habituation, sensitization and Pavlovian conditioning all involve?

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All involve presentations of different types of stimuli according to various arrangements. The procedures produce changes in behavior - increases and decreases behavior in responding-as a result of these stimulus presentations.

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What is a important common feature of habituation, sensitization and Pavlovian conditioning?

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Is that they are defined independently of the actions of the organism. What the participants do as a result of the procedure does not influence the stimuli they receive.

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Whether or not a significant stimulus or even occurs depends on the behavior of the organism. What Learning is this?

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Instrumental or operant conditioning

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Operant Conditioning

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Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

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Elicit

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means to draw out or bring forth

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Certain behaviors are

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elicited in the sense that they are automatically drawn out by the stimuli that produce them.

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Reflex

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relatively simple, automatic response to a stimulus (reflexes are elicit in the sense that they are drawn out by stimuli that precedes that occurrence).

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Startle Response

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defensive reaction to a sudden, unexpected stimulus - involves the automatic tightening of skeletal muscles as well as various hormonal and visceral changes.

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Orienting Responses

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automatically position ourselves to facilitate attending to a stimulus - can involve a relatively major body movement, such as when we automatically turn in response to an unfamiliar noise behind us.

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Flexion Response

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protective reflexes; quickly jerking your hand away from contact with an open flame. Perception of pain generally follows the response.

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Reflex Arc

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neutral structure that underlies many reflexes and consists of a sensory neuron, an interneuron, and a motor neuron.

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Fixed Action Pattern

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fixed sequence of responses elicited by a specific stimulus. Engages in a series of actions, not a single action as in the reflex.

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Sign Stimulus or Releaser

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The specific stimulus that elicits a fixed action pattern -The inborn tendency to zigzag is a maladaptive way of responding to the modern threat of automobiles. By comparison and animal that can modify its' behavior patterns through learning can better adapt to a changing environment, which is why the ability to learn was an important evolutionary advancement

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Species - Specific Behavior

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Behaviors that are specific to a particular species. Also referenced as instincts, but some researchers dislike this term because it implies that the behavior is more inflexible than it actually is.

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Sensitization

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increase in the strength of a behavior following repeated presentations of the elitciting stimulus. Sensitization is less stimulus specific than habituation.

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Habituation

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decrease in the strength of a behavior following repeated presentation of the eliciting stimulus.

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Long-Term Habituation

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habituation that tends to build up slowly and disappear slowly

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Dishabituation

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presentation of a novel stimulus during a period of habituation, results in the habituated response disappearing. One factor that influences whether we habituate or become sensitized to a particular stimulus is the intensity of the eliciting stimulus.

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Low-Intensity stimulus

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results in habituation; high-intensity stimulus - results in sensitization; stimulus of intermediate intensity results in a period of sensitization followed by habituation. From an evolutionary standpoint, if stimulus is irrelevant or safe, we tend to habituate, whereas if a stimulus is perceived as a signal of danger will become sensitized to it.

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We often fail to habituate to stimuli (even if they are not actually dangerous), because

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our nervous system tends to err on the side of caution to keep us safe.

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The opponent-process theory of emotion

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accounts for why a strong emotional response is often followed by an opposite emotional response

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a-process

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directly elicited by the emotional event; this in turn elicits the b-process, the purpose of which is to maintain a relatively balanced internal state known as homeostasis. A-process is also known as the primary process, and the b-process is also known as the opponent process.

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With repeated presentations of the emotional event

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the b-process increases in both strength and duration.

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A-process is directly tied to

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the presence of the emotional event, whereas the b-process is slow to increase and slow to decrease.

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Classical Conditioning

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process in which one stimulus that does not elicit a response is associated with a second stimulus that does, as a result, the first stimulus also comes to elicit a response.

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Unconditioned Stimulus

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a stimulus that naturally elicits a response

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Unconditioned Response

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response that is naturally elicited by the US

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Conditioned Stimulus

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Any stimulus that, although initially neutral, comes to elicit a response because it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Response

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response, often similar to the UR, that is elicited by the CS.

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Classical Conditioning

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Pavlonian Conditioning or Respondent Conditioning

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Respondent Conditioning

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behaviors are called respondent behaviors or simply respondents.

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Each pairing of the NS and CS is

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called a conditioning trial

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In the basic classical conditioning procedure the US is

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paired with the NS, which in turn elicits the UR. As a result, the first stimulus becomes a CS, which elicits a CR.

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The CR is

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often similar to the UR

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A CR that appears identical to the UR is

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almost always less intense.

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Appetitive Conditioning

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the US is an event that is usually considered pleasant and that an organism seeks out.

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Aversive Conditioning

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US is an event that is usually considered unpleasant and that an organism usually avoids.

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Conditioned Emotional Response (Conditioned Suppression)

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Established by Estes and Skinner (1941). The level of fear elicited by a CS is indicated by the degree to which the rat's rate of lever pressing for food decreases in the presence of that stimulus.

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Suppression Ratio

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the number of responses emitted during the CS period divided by the combined number emitted during the CS period and the number emitted during the same length period immediately preceding the CS.

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Excitatory Conditioning (CS+)

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Conditioning in which the NS is associated with the presentation of a US.

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Inhibitory Conditioning (CS-)

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Conditioning in which the NS is associated with the absence or removal of a US - that is the response is less likely to occur when the stimulus is present.

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Most of the basic principles of classical conditioning have

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been established using procedures that involve excitatory conditioning.

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Delayed Conditioning

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the onset of the NS precedes the onset of the US and the two stimuli overlap.

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Trace Conditioning

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the onset and offset of the NS precede the onset of the US

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Trace Interval

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time between the offset of the NS and the onset of the US

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Simultaneous Conditioning

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the onset of that NS and the onset of the US are simultaneous.

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Backward Conditioning

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the onset of the NS follows the onset of the US.

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Acquisition

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The process of developing and strengthening a conditioned response through repeated pairings of neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US).

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In general, acquisition

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proceeds rapidly during early conditioning trials, than gradually levels off.

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More intense US's produce

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stronger and more rapid conditioning than do less-intense US's.

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Asymptote of Learning

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maximum amount of learning that can take place in a given situation

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Extinction

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a conditioned response can be weakened or eliminated when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented in the absence of the US

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Spontaneous Recovery

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the reappearance of a conditioned response following a rest period after extinction.

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Disinhibition

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sudden recovery of a response during an extinction procedure when a novel stimulus is introduced.

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Once a CR has been extinguished,

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reacquisition of that response tends to occur more rapidly than the original conditioning.

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With repeated sessions of extinction,

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each time a response recovers, it is usually somewhat weaker and extinguishes more quickly.

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Stimulus Generalization

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tendency for the CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the CS

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Semantic Generalization

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generalization of a conditioned response to verbal stimui that are similar in meaning to the CS.

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Stimulus Discrimination

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tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another.

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Experimental Neurosis

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an experimentally produced disorder in which animals exposed to unpredictable events develop neurotic-like symptoms.

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Theory of Personality (Pavlov)

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inherited differences in temperament interact with classical conditioning to produce certain patterns of behavior.

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Extroverts are

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less reactive to external stimulation, condition less easily, and develop physical-type reactions to stress

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Psychopaths

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extreme extroverts who condition very poorly. Therefore they feel little or now conditioned anxiety when harming or manipulating others.

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Higher-Order Conditioning

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stimulus that is associated with a CS can also become a CS

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Higher-Order Conditioning

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stimulus that is associated with a CS can also become a CS (pg 139 - see chart)

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In general the CS2 (second order) elicits

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a weaker response than the CS1 (first order)

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Sensory Preconditioning

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when one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus it was previously associated with can also become a CS. (pg. 143)

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Compound Stimulus

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consists of the simultaneous presentation of two or more individual stimuli (e.g. the sound of a metronome is presented at the same time as a light).

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Overshadowing

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the most salient member of a compound stimulus is more readily conditioned as a CS and thereby interferes with conditioning of the least salient member.

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Blocking

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the presence of an established CS interferes with conditioning of a new CS. Blocking is similar to overshadowing except that the compound consists of a neutral stimulus and a CS rather than two neutral stimuli that differ in salience.

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Latent Inhibition

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a familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition to a CS than is an unfamiliar (novel) stimulus. It prevents the development of conditioned associations to redundant stimuli in the environment.

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Overshadowing

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Compound stimulus consists of a NS and CS

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Latent Inhibition

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compound stimulus consists of two NS

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Temporal Conditioning

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form of classical conditioning in which the CS is the passage of time

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Occasion Setting

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procedure in which a stimulus signals that a CS is likely to be followed by the US with which it is associated.

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External Inhibition

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presentation of a novel stimulus at the same time as the conditioned stimulus produces a decrease in the strength of the conditioned response.

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US Revaluation

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involves the postconditioning presentation of the US at a different level of intensity, thereby altering the strength of response to the previously conditioned CS.

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Psuedoconditioning

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an elicited response that appears to be a CR is actually the result of sensitization rather than conditioning.

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Stimulus-Response Model

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The neutral stimulus (NS) becomes directly associated with the unconditioned response (UR) and therefore comes to elicit the same response as the UR

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Stimulus- Stimulus Model

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the NS becomes directly associated with the US and, because of this association, comes to elicit a response that is related to the US.

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Stimulus - Substitution Theory

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the CS acts as a substitute for the US. For example, pairing a tone with food results in the tone becoming a substitute for the food, eliciting salivation just as the food does.

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Preparatory - Response Theory

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the purpose of the CR is to prepare the organism for the occurrence of the US

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Compensatory Response Model

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A CS has been repeatedly associated with the primary response (a-process) to a US will eventually come to elicit a compensatory response (b-process).

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compensatory response model of drug conditioning

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a CS that has been associated with a drug will eventually come to elicit a compensatory reaction

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Symptoms of withdrawal are likely to be

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stronger in the presence of drug related cues.

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drug-related cues tend to

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elicit compensatory responses to the drug that are experienced as cravings.

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We tend to have higher tolerance for a drug

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in the presence of cues associated with taking the drug

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In general, stronger US's

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support more conditioning than weaker US's

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Overshadowing

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occurs because the more salient CS picks up most of the associative value available in that setting.

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Blocking

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occurs because the CS in the compound has already picked up all of the available associative value

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Overexpectation Effect

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decrease in the conditioned response that occurs when two separately conditioned CS's are combined into a compound stimulus for further pairings with the US.

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Phobia

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irrational fear reaction to a particular event. It seems to represent a process of overgeneralization. (Pg. 185)

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Observational Learning

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many phobias are acquired through observation of fearful reactions in others.

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Temperament

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an individual's base level of emotionality and reactivity to stimulation, is to a large extent genetically determined.

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Preparedness

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refers to a genetically based predisposition to learn certain kinds of associations more easily than others.

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History of Control

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Another factor that may influence susceptibility to fear conditioning is a history of being able to control important events in one's environment.

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We are more likely to acquire a conditioned fear response if

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we grow up in a world in which we experience little or no control over the available awards.

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Incubation

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refers to the strengthening of a conditioned fear response as a result of brief exposures to the aversive CS.

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From a conditioning perspective

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viewing a display of fear in others can be conceptualized as an US stimulus that elicits an UR response of fear in oneself. The event the other person is reacting to might then become a CS stimulus that elicits a CR response of fear in oneself.

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Selective Sensitization

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refers to an increase in one's reactivity to a potentially fearful stimulus following exposure to a stressful event, even though the stressful event is unrelated to the feared stimulus.

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Counter Conditioning

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a CS that elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response.

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Reciprocal Inhibition

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underlying process in counterconditioning in which certain responses are incompatible with each other, and the occurrence of one response necessarily inhibits the other.

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Three Basic Aspects of Wolpe's Treatment Procedure

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Training in relaxation Creation of a hierarchy of imaginary scenes that elicit progressively intense levels of fear. Pairing of each item in the hierarchy with relaxation.

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Systematic Desensitization

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behavioral treatment for phobias that involves pairing relaxation with a succession of stimuli that elicit increasing levels of fear.

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In-Vivo Desensitization

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A version of Wolpe's procedure that uses real-life rather than imaginary stimuli. A major advantage of this procedure is that one does not have to worry about whether the treatment effect will generalize to the real world.

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Wolpe's procedure

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is very effective with people who have few phobias that are highly specific. This procedure does not work well with people who have a social phobia.

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Counterconditioning

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relaxation does seem to facilitate tx when the phobia is severe, but relaxation is not always necessary for the tx to be effective.

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Flooding Therapy

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the avoidance response is blocked thereby providing maximal opportunity for the conditioned fear to extinguish. only effective if the exposure period is of a relatively long duration.

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Imaginal Flooding

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one visualizes the feard stimulus

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In Vivo Flooding

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one encounters a real example of the feared stimulus.

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Modern-day therapies for phobias

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are often given the general name of exposure-based treatments.

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Ost's single-session procedure combines

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gradualness of systematic desensitization with the prolonged exposure time of F________ (pg. 199). This procedure also makes use of participant modeling (the therapist demonstrates how to interact with the feared object).

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Aversion Therapy

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reduces the attractiveness of a desired event by associating with an aversive stimulus.

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Define Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

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Discriminative Stimulus (SD): a stimulus that precedes the behavior and is present only if reinforcement for the behavior will occur. A stimulus that indicates reinforcement will occur. (Lecture 1-296)

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Define Stimulus Control

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Stimulus Control: the increased probability of a discriminated behavior produced by a discriminative stimulus (Lecture 1-297)

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Define stimulus.

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Stimulus: anything that affects the person's behavior. (Lecture 1-295)

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Define generalization

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Generalization: grouping similar situations into general catergories (Lecture 1-295)

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Define discrimination

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Discrimination: distinguishing among different situations (Lecture 1-295)

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Define S-Delta

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S-Delta: a stimulus that precedes the behavior and is present only if extinction will occur for that behavior. (Lecture 1)

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Compare and Contrast S-Delta & Discriminative Stimulus

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Both S-Delta and Discriminative Stimuli precede behavior and indicate whether a consequence will occur. Discriminative stimuli indicates that reinforcement will occur. S-delta that reinforcement will not occur (extinction). (Lecture 1-296)

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Antecedent Event or Consequence? Discriminative Stimulus

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Discriminative Stimulus: Antecedent Event (Lecture 1)

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Antecedent Event or Consequence? S-delta

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S-delta: Antecedent Event (Lecture 1)

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Antecedent Event or Consequence? Reinforcing Stimulus

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Reinforcing Stimulus: Consequence (Lecture 1)

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Antecedent Event or Consequence? Punishing Stimulus

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Punishing Stimulus: Consequence (Lecture 1)

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Explain the three term contingency? What are its parts?

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Describes the maintenance of all operant (voluntary) behavior. Also known as the ABC's of operant behavior. 1. Stimulus (Antecedent event) 2. Response (Behavior) 3. Consequence (Reinforcement or Punishment) (Lecture 1)

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What does it mean for a behavior to be under stimulus control?

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A behavior under stimulus control occurs in the presence of a stimulus but not in the absence of the stimulus. A behavior under stimulus control is more likely to occur in the presence of the discriminative stimulus. (Lecture 1)

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What are the ABC's of operant conditioning?

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Antecedent Event (Discriminative Stimulus) Behavior Consequence (Lecture 1)

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Example of behavior under stimulus control. (Be able to identify ABC's of each)

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(Lecture 1)

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Describe how bomb sniffing rats are trained to emit behavior under stimulus control. Identify the ABCs.

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(Lecture 1)

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Define discrimination training and provide an example

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Discrimination Training: a procedure where a behavior is reinforced in the presence of one stimulus and extinguished in the presence of another stimulus Examples: Learning to go through doors marked with exit signs as opposed to other signs, providing the correct answer to questions of fact, hitting a curve ball (you can discriminate it from another type of throw) (Lecture 1)

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Define generalization training and provide an example

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Generalization Training: reinforcing behavior in a series of situations until it generalizes to other members of that stimulus class Examples: applying a concept to real life, a child recognizes all dogs as dogs instead of just her dog, applying treatment outside of the psychologist's office (Lecture 1)

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Define stimulus class and provide an example

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Stimulus Class: a set of related stimuli. Allows for the extension of treatment beyond a laboratory to real life. Examples: red objects, dogs, prime numbers, fruit, doctors (anything that can be categorized.) (Lecture 1)

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How can discrimination training elicit emotional responses or have motivational power. (Use class examples.)

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(Lecture 1)

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Suppose you whisper "psst" and Tim looks at you. You then tell Tim a juicy piece of gossip. This happens repeatedly, so that saying "psst" regularly causes Tim to look at you. Label the ABC's for each person.

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For you: Antecedent: you have gossip to share (?) Behavior: Whisper "psst" Consequence: Tim looks at you For Tim: Antecedent: Hears "psst" Behavior: Tim looks at you Consequence: Gets juicy gossip (Lecture 1)

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Examples of discrimination training used to narrow stimulus control

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(Lecture 1)

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Examples of generalization training used to broaden stimulus control

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(Lecture 1)

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Define Prompt

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Prompt: an added stimulus that increases the probability that a person will make the correct response in the presence of a novel stimulus (Lecture 1)

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Define fading

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Fading: the temporary use of a prompt to establish a specific discrimination, a type of discrimination training. Used when a person never makes the desired response in the presence of a novel stimulus. DISCRIMINATION! (Lecture 1)

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Define Programming

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Programming: The temporary use of prompts to establish generalization to a class of stimuli. Used to teach a generalization when the behavior never occurs in the presence of a novel stimuli. GENERALIZATION! (Lecture 1)

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Compare and Contrast Fading & Programming

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Both fading and programming are the temporary usage of a prompt and are used when a person does not emit a certain behavior. In programming, the prompts are used to teach generalization. In Fading, the prompts are used to teach discrimination. PROGRAMMING=GENERALIZATION FADING=DISCRIMINATION (Lecture 1)

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Examples of Fading

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Teaching a child to discriminate one color from others: "What color is this?... Is it red?" and then slowly reducing the prompt or hints about the name of the color. Teaching how to discriminate curve balls: teachers put a orange strip of tape on the ball so batters can see the movement of the ball and then reduce the width of the tape as players learn to discriminate it from other types of throws. (Lecture 1)

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Examples of Programming

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Child only calls big round object balls, use a prompt to generalize to other round objects and then reinforce the responses, child will then call other round objects balls. Programmed instruction is another example. (Lecture 1-342)

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How can prompts create new stimulus control?

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(Lecture 1)

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Relate programmed instruction/reading to programming

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Programed instruction/reading involves a written response, provides immediate feedback and introduces a small amount of information which is introduced in small steps. Programed instruction/reading uses prompts temporarily to teach new information. The immediate feedback reinforces a correct response. The prompts aim to increase the number of ways which a concept can be applied. (Lecture 1- 343-345)

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Compare and contrast imitation training & instructional training

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Imitation training and instructional training both involve a learner emitting a behavior and a teacher reinforcing it. The difference is that in imitation training the teacher demonstrates the behavior and in instructional training the teacher described how to do the behavior. (Lecture 2)

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How is imitating an example of a reinforced behavior?

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Imitating is a reinforced behavior because it is emitted in response to a stimuli and then reinforced (Lecture 2)

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Why is imitation thought of as a response class learned through generalization training?

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Imitation is thought of as a response class learned through generalization training because imitating is a class of behaviors, comprised of different components. (Lecture 2)

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Examples of imitation training

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Any response that includes: 1) The teacher demonstrates an imitative stimulus 2) The learner emits the imitative behavior 3) The teacher reinforces it EX: A teacher says the German word "gut", a learner says "gut", the teacher reinforces the correct response. Dad shows how to throw a ball, child throws ball, dad praises it. (Lecture 2)

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Examples of instructional training

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Any response that includes: 1) The teacher gives a verbal description 2) The learner emits the imitative behavior 3) The teacher reinforces it EX: Dad tells child how to start car, child starts car, dad praises child. Mom tells child how to use remote, child uses remote, mom reinforces child. (Lecture 2)

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Compare and contrast contingency shaped & rule governed behavior

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(Lecture 2)

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What are the five tactics in the stimulus control strategy?

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1) Narrow stimulus control through discrimination training 2) Broaden stimulus control through generalization training 3) Create new stimulus control by temporarily using prompts 4) Create complex stimulus control through imitation training and instructional training 5) Make reinforcement more practical by creating conditioned reinforcers DGPIICR Daring guinea pigs imitate irritated crying rabbits. Discrimination, Generalization, Prompts, Imitation training, Instructional training, Condtioned Reinforcers (Lecture 3)

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Give an example of prompts

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Getting a child to say "da" when you point to their father. "Who's that? Is that Da? Say Dad." (Lecture 1)

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Give an example of conditioned reinforcers

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Clickers in animal training are conditioned to be paired with a treat. (Lecture 3)

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Explain how using conditioned reinforcers makes reinforcement more practical

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Conditioned reinforcers make reinforcement more practical by allowing a conditioned reinforer to be administer immediately when a primary reinforcer may not available and allowing an animal to work for the conditioned reinforcer and not the primary, therefore avoiding satiation (principle of deprivation). (Lecture 3)

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Explain how the principles of immediacy and deprivation relate to conditioned reinforcers

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Immediacy: Cr's can be administered immediately after the target behavior or can bridge the time between the behavior and the primary reinforcer. Deprivation: reduces the number of primary reinforcers that are distributed in a training session therefore allowing the animal to not become satiated by the primary reinforcer. (Lecture 3)

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Explain the role of conditioned reinforcers in token economies and point systems. Provide examples.

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In a token economy, token or points serve as conditioned reinforcers because they are associated with rewards that you can buy. In a token or point economy, the participants earn points for doing positive things, these points can be redeemed for privileges or prizes. (Lecture 3: 377-379)

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Rats trained to find buried land mines were trained to scratch at the earth when they detected the scent of explosives. When the rats scratched, the person working with them sounded a "clicker" and then gave the rat some mashed banana. Identify the discriminative stimuli, behaviors, conditioned reinforcers and reinforcers.

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discriminative stimuli: scent of explosives behaviors: scratched at ground conditioned reinforcers: clicker reinforcers: mashed banana (Lecture 3)

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How do stimulus/response chains work?

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A stimulus/response chain is a sequence where each behavior produces an SD for the next behavior and the last behavior is reinforced (Lecture 3)

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How are stimulus/response chains typically trained?

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Tend to train the last behavior in the chain and then work backwards. (Lecture 3)

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Explain how a single stimulus in a response chains can function as BOTH a conditioned reinforcers for one behavior and SDs for another.

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Each response in the chain produces an effect on the environment that is 1) A CR for the behavior that produced it 2) An SD for the next behavior in the chain (Lecture 3)

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Define primary reinforcer. Provide an example.

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Primary Reinforcer: reinforcing events rooted in biology that can lose effectiveness through satiation. They tend to be the same for everyone. Examples: Food, sex, water (Lecture 3)

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Define conditioned reinforcer. Provide an example.

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Conditioned Reinforcer: events that function as reinforcers through their association with "back-up" reinforcers. They will permanently lose their effectiveness through unpaired presentations. Example: towels in towel hoarding woman example - towels are paired with attention fro hospital staff; when the pairing stopped the towels lost their value. (Lecture 3 - 375-376)

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Define generalized reinforcer. Provide an example.

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Generalized reinforcer: a conditioned reinforcer that is associated with more than one "back-up" reinforcer. Examples: Money or praise (Lecture 3)

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Define back-up reinforcer. Provide an example.

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Backup Reinforcer: any reinforcer that makes a conditioned or generalized reinforcer effective. Example: in towel hoarding women example, the effectiveness of the towels is "backed up" by the attention of the hospital attendants. (Lecture 3 - 376)

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conditional or conditioned response (CR)

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The response that comes to be made to the conditioned stimulus as a result of classical conditioning.

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conditional or conditioned stimulus (CS)

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A stimulus that does not elicit a particular response initially, but comes to do so as a result of becoming associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

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conditioned emotional response (CER)

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Suppression of a positively reinforced instrumental behavior (e.g., lever pressing for food pallets) caused by the presentation of a stimulus that has become associated with an aversive stimulus. Also called the conditioned suppression.

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evaluative conditioning

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Changing the hedonic value or liking an an initially neutral stimulus by having that stimulus associated with something that is already liked or disliked.

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latency

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The time elapsed between a stimulus (or the start of a trial) and the response that is made to the stimulus

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lick-suppression procedure

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Similar to the conditioned emotional response (CER), or conditioned suppression procedure. However, instead of lever pressing for food serving as the behavior that is suppressed by conditioned fear, the baseline is licking a water spout by thirsty rats. The presentation of a fear-conditioned CS slows down the rate of drinking.

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magnitude of a response

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A measure of the size, vigor, or extent of a response.

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object learning

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Learning associations between different stimulus elements of an object.

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sign tracking

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Movement toward and possibly contact with a stimulus that signals the availability of a positive reinforcer, such as food. Also called autoshaping.

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unconditional or unconditioned response (UR)

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A response that occurs to a stimulus without the necessity of prior training

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unconditional or unconditioned stimulus (US)

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A stimulus that elicits a particular response without the necessity of prior training.

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a process "primary process"

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The first process that is elicited by a biologically significant stimulus.

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afferent neuron

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A neuron that transmits messages from sense organs to the central nervous system? Also called sensory neuron.

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appetitive behavior

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Behavior that occurs early in a natural behavior sequence and serves to bring the organism in contact with a releasing stimulus. (See also general search mode and focal search mode.)

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opponent process "b process"

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A compensatory mechanism that occurs in response to the primary process elicited by biologically significant events. The opponent process causes physiological and behavioral changes that are the opposite of those caused by the primary process.

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consummatory behavior

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Behavior that serves to bring a natural sequence of behavior to consummation or completion. Consummatory responses are usually species-typical modal actions. (See also food handling mode.)

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drug tolerance

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Reduction in the effectiveness of a drug as a result of result of repeated use of the drug.

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efferent neuron

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A neuron that transmits impulses to muscles. Also called a motor neuron.

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fatigue

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A temporary muscle decrease in behavior caused by repeated or excessive use of the muscles involved in the behavior.

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focal search mode

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The second component of the feeding behavior sequence following general search, in which the organism engages in behavior focused on a particular location or stimulus that is indicative of the presence of food. Focal search is a form of appetitive behavior that is more closely related to food than general search.

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food handling mode

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The last component of the feeding behavior sequence, in which the organism handles and consumes the food. This is similar to what ethologists referred to as a consummatory behavior.

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general search mode

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The earliest component of the feeding behavior sequence, in which the organism engages in non-directed locomotor behavior. General search is a form of appetitive behavior.

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habituation effect

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A progressive decrease in the vigor of elicited behavior that may occur with repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus.

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interneuron

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A neuron in the spinal cord that transmits impulses from afferent (or sensory) to efferent (or motor) neurons.

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modal action pattern (MAP)

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A response pattern exhibited by most, if not all, members of a species in much of the same way. Modal action patters are used as basic units of behavior in ethological investigations of behavior.

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opponent process

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A compensatory mechanism that occurs in response to the primary process elicited by biologically significant events. The opponent process causes physiological and behavioral changes that are the opposite of those caused by the primary process. Also called the b process.

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primary process

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The first process that is elicited by a biologically significant stimuli. Also called the a process.

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reflex arc

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Neural structures consisting of the afferent (sensory) neuron, interneuron, and efferent (motor) neuron, that enable a stimulus to elicit a reflex response.

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sensitization effect

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An increase in the vigor of elicited behavior that may result from repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus or from exposure to strong extraneous stimulus.

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sensitization process

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A neural mechanism that increases the magnitude of responses elicited by a stimulus.

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sensory adaptation

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A temporary reduction in the sensitivity of sense organs caused by repeated or excessive stimulation.

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sign stimulus

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A specific feature of an object or animal that elicits a modal action patter (MAP) from another organism. Also called the releasing stimulus.

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spontaneous recovery

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Recovery of a response produced by a period of rest after habituation or extinction.

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S-R system

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The shortest neural pathway that connects the sense organs stimulated by an eliciting stimulus and the muscles involved in making the elicited response.

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state system

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Neural structures that determine the general level of responsiveness, or readiness to respond, of the organism.

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supernormal stimulus

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An artificially enlarged or exaggerated sign stimulus that elicits an unusually vigorous response.

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blocking effect

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the conditioning of an association between two stimuli, a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) is impaired if, during the conditioning process, the CS is presented together with a second CS that has already been associated with the unconditioned stimulus. For example, a dog is exposed to a light (the first conditioned stimulus, CS1), together with food (the unconditioned stimulus, US). After repeated pairings of CS1 and US, the dog salivates when the light comes on (conditioned response, CR). Then there are more conditioning trials, this time with the light (CS1) and a tone (CS2) together with the US. Now, when tested, the animal does not salivate to the tone (CS2). In other words, an association between the tone CS2 and the US has been "blocked" because the CS1-US association already exists.

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Rescorla-Wagner model (RW)

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is a model of classical conditioning in which the animal is theorized to learn from the discrepancy between what is expected to happen and what actually happens. This is a trial-level model in which each stimulus is either present or not present at some point in the trial. The prediction of the unconditioned stimulus for a trial can be represented as the sum of all the associative strengths for the conditioned stimuli present during the trial. This is the feature of the model that represents a major advance over previous models, and allowed a straightforward explanation of important experimental phenomena such as blocking.

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Basic assumptions of the Rescorla-Wagner model

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1. The amount of surprise an organism is assumed to experience when encountering an unconditioned stimulus (US) is assumed to be dependent on the summed associative value of all cues present during that trial. This assumption differs from previous models which considered only the associative value of a particular conditioned stimulus (CS) to be the determining aspect of surprise. 2. Excitation and inhibition are opposite features. One stimulus can only have a positive associative strength (being a conditioned excitor) or a negative associative strength (being a conditioned inhibitor); it cannot have both. 3. The associative strength of a stimulus is expressed directly in the behavior it elicits/inhibits. There is no way of learning about a stimulus without showing what was learned in the organism's reactions. 4. The salience of a CS is a constant. The salience of a CS (alpha) is not supposed to undergo any changes during training and can thus be represented by a constant. 5. The history of a cue does not have any effects on its current state. It is only the current associative value of a cue which determines the amount of learning. It does not matter whether the CS may have undergone several conditioning-extinction sessions or the like.

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Some failures of the RW model 1

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Spontaneous recovery from extinction and recovery from extinction caused by reminder treatments (reinstatement) It is a well-established observation that a time-out interval after completion of extinction results in partial recovery from extinction, i.e., the previously extinguished reaction or response recurs—but usually at a lower level than before extinction training. Reinstatement refers to the phenomenon that exposure to the US from training alone after completion of extinction results in partial recovery from extinction. The RW model can't account for those phenomena.

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Some failures of the RW model 2

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Extinction of a previously conditioned inhibitor The RW model predicts that repeated presentation of a conditioned inhibitor alone (a CS with negative associative strength) results in extinction of this stimulus (a decline of its negative associative value). This is a false prediction. Contrarily, experiments show the repeated presentation of a conditioned inhibitor alone even increases its inhibitory potential.

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Some failures of the RW model 3

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Facilitated reacquisition after extinction One of the assumptions of the model is that the history of conditioning of a CS does not have any influences on its present status—only its current associative value is important. Contrary to this assumption, many experiments show that stimuli that were first conditioned and then extinguished are more easily reconditioned (i.e., fewer trials are necessary for conditioning).

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Some failures of the RW model 4

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The exclusiveness of excitation and inhibition The RW model also assumes that excitation and inhibition are opponent features. A stimulus can either have excitatory potential (a positive associative strength) or inhibitory potential (a negative associative strength), but not both. By contrast it is sometimes observed, that stimuli can have both qualities. One example is backward excitatory conditioning in which a CS is backwardly paired with a US (US-CS instead of CS-US). This usually makes the CS become a conditioned excitor. But interestingly, the stimulus also has inhibitory features which can be proven by the retardation of acquisition test. This test is used to assess the inhibitory potential of a stimulus since it is observed that excitatory conditioning with a previously conditioned inhibitor is retarded. The backwardly conditioned stimulus passes this test and thus seems to have both excitatory and inhibitory features.

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Some failures of the RW model 5

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Pairing a novel stimulus with a conditioned inhibitor A conditioned inhibitor is assumed to have a negative associative value. By presenting an inhibitor with a novel stimulus (i.e., its associative strength is zero), the model predicts that the novel cue should become a conditioned excitor. This is not the case in experimental situations. The predictions of the model stem from its basic term (lambda-V). Since the summed associative strength of all stimuli (V) present on the trial is negative (zero + inhibitory potential) and lambda is zero (no US present), the resulting change in the associative strength is positive, thus making the novel cue a conditioned excitor.

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Some failures of the RW model 6

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CS-preexposure effect The CS-preexposure effect (also called latent inhibition) is the well-established observation that conditioning after exposure to the stimulus later used as the CS in conditioning is retarded. The RW model doesn't predict any effect of presenting a novel stimulus without a US.

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Some failures of the RW model 7

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Higher-order conditioning In higher-order conditioning a previously conditioned CS is paired with a novel cue (i.e., first CS1-US then CS2-CS1). This usually makes the novel cue CS2 elicit similar reactions to the CS1. The model cannot account for this phenomenon since during CS2-CS1 trials, no US is present. But by allowing CS1 to act similarly to a US, one can reconcile the model with this effect.

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Some failures of the RW model 8

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Sensory preconditioning Sensory preconditioning refers to first pairing two novel cues (CS1-CS2) and then pairing one of them with a US (CS2-US). This turns both CS1 and CS2 into conditioned excitors. The RW model cannot explain this, since during the CS1-CS2-phase both stimuli have an associative value of zero and lambda is also zero (no US present) which results in no change in the associative strength of the stimuli.

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The comparator hypothesis

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the idea that conditioned responding depends on a comparison between the associative strength of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the associative strength of other cues present during training of the target CS.

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What is learning and why is important:

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Learning is one of the biological processes that facilitate adaptation to one's environment It is both the acquisition of new behavior and the loss of previous behavior Learning to ride a bike, read, play and instrument Learning not to cross the street when the light is red, not yelling in a classroom We can learn both by instruction and by interaction with our environment This book will focus on the behaviorist tradition of looking at behavior in terms of it's antecedent stimuli and consequences As opposed to conscious reflection and reasoning

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Types of learning:

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Procedural: skill learning, doesn't require awareness Declarative and episodic: require awareness... can be consciously reported

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Early History: René Descartes (1596-1650): Cartesian dualism

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Two classes of behavior Involuntary: a reflex The BODY (physical) Voluntary: doesn't have to be triggered by external stimuli "conscious intent" The MIND (non-physical) Connected to the body via the pineal gland He believed that non-human animals did not have voluntary behavior (no free will) His ideas were inspiration for two intellectual traditions: Combined these form part of the foundation of the modern study of learning Mentalism: study of the contents and workings of the mind Reflexology: mechanisms of reflexive behavior Nativism: The mind contains ideas that are innate Such as God, concept of self, fundamental axioms of geometry

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Early History: John Locke (1621-1704): Tabula rasa and empiricism

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Took issue with Descartes' nativism Locke thinks that we are born with a clean slate (tabula rasa) and that through experience we gain information This is called empiricism

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Early History: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): Hedonism

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He disagreed with Descartes' idea the mind did not function orderly He believed that people did things in pursuit of pleasure and in avoidance of pain

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Association: Aristotle, Thomas Brown, Hermann Ebbinghaus

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3 Rules: (Aristotle) Contiguity- (together in time or space).. most studied concept Similarity- confirmed by modern research Contrast- no evidence for this in modern research Thomas Brown (1778-1820): also believed that intensity and frequency were also all important secondary factors influencing associations Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) First to study mechanisms of associations empirically Nonsense syllables

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Reflexes

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Bell (1774-1842) and Magendie (1783-1855) Discovery that separate nerves transmit sensory information from sense organs to the CNS and motor information from the CNS to muscles Sechenov (1829-1905) Release of inhibition Voluntary behavior and thoughts are elicited by inconspicuous, faint stimuli Pavlov (1849-1936) Not all reflexes are innate

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The Modern Era: Comparative Cognition

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Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Evolution Nonhuman animals have many of the same abilities as humans

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The Modern Era: Functional Neurology

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Initiated by Pavlov Nervism All physiological functions are governed by the nervous system Bayliss and Starling's finding that pancreas was partially under hormonal not neural control This changed everything for Pavlov... and he went from studying digestion to studying conditioned reflexes

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Functional Neurology

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Behavioral studies Provide clues about the machinery of the nervous system Types of plasticity When learning takes place How long learned responses last Accessibility of learning Animals Models Began with Dollard and Millar (1939) and developed by B.F. Skinner (1953) Simpler, more easily controlled, less expensive Great for drug development Robotics and AI

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Definition of Learning

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Learning is an enduring change in the mechanisms of behavior involving specific stimuli and/or response that results from prior experience with those or similar stimuli and responses. Learning-Performance Distinction Non-learning sources of behavior Levels of Analysis -Whole Organism (behavioral) -Neural circuits and neurotransmitters (neural system or network) -Neurons and synapse (Molecular, cellular, and genetic) Methods for studying learning

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General-Process Approach

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general laws are used to organize and explain the diversity of events in the universe; look at and assume commonalities of various instances of learning and assume that learning phenomena are products of elemental processes that operate in similar ways across situations; commonalities among species in cognitive function; generalize from nonhuman research to apply to humans

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Chapter 2: Elicited Behavior, Habituation, and Sensitization

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So far the nativists are closer to truth than empiricists

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Elicited Behavior: Reflexes

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Eliciting stimulus Corresponding response

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Simplest reflexes are mediated by the reflex arc: Comprised of:

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Sensory or afferent neuron that transmits information to the spinal cord An interneuron A motor or efferent neuron which sends information from the spinal cord to activate muscles involved in the reflex

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Simplest reflexes are mediated by the reflex arc: Modal action patterns (MAPs; aka fixed action patterns, Lorenz & Tinbergen)

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Response sequences that are typical of a specific species Example: herring gull from lecture Sign stimulus or releasing stimulus Feature of the stimulus that is critical in eliciting the MAP Once a sign stimulus has been identified it can be exaggerated to produce a more vigorous response The sign stimulus is then called a supernormal stimulus Sequential organization of behavior Appetitive behavior Early component of behavioral sequence Bring organisms into contact with the stimulus that will release the consummatory behavior Less stereotyped Ex: Squirrel trying to get nut from tree.. has many ways of climbing up the tree Consummatory behavior End of sequence Completion of typical response sequence Highly stereotyped that have specific releasing stimuli Ex. Once squirrel gets nut it will do the same type of chewing and swallowing behaviors

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Habituation:

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A decline in responding that occurs with repeated presentation of a stimulus

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Sensitization:

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An increase in responsiveness produced by repeated presentations of a stimulus

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Startle Response:

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A startle to an intense stimuli (ex. a loud noise) This response will habituate after many presentations Spaced vs massed presentations Spontaneous recovery

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Habituation versus sensory adaptation and response fatigue

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Not all decreases in responsiveness to repeated exposures to a stimulus are a function of habituation Other causes -Sensory adaptation --Examples: temporary blindness when you look at a bright light; hearing loss after exposure to a loud noise Fatigue -Muscle weakness

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Dual-process theory of habituation and sensitization

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Habituation and sensitization processes compete for control of behavior One neural process produces decreased response Habituation process Another produces an increase in response Sensitization process Habituation and sensitization are the sum of both habituation and sensitization processes Habituation processes occur in the S-R system Reflex arc Activated every time an eliciting stimulus is presented Highly stimulus specific (very little generalization) Spontaneous recovery Dishabituation Sensitization processes: Occur in state system Becomes involved only in special circumstances Not stimulus specific Is specific to system activated Internal malaise—gustatory system; cutaneous pain—extroceptive system May be sensitized by extraneous event

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Emotional reactions

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Biphasic: one emotion occurs during the eliciting stimulus.. the opposite emotion is observed when the stimulus is terminated Ex. Love, drugs Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation The primary reaction becomes less over time and after-reaction becomes stronger The primary reaction becomes weaker with repeated stimulations The weakening of the primary reaction with repeated exposure is accompanied by a strengthening of the after-reaction A process Initial emotional response B process Opposite emotional reaction After-reaction 1st an A process occurs unopposed. The B process begins to become activated and counter the A process (but is not strong enough to entirely counteract it). When stimulus is taken away A process goes away, but B process remains. After repeated presentations: B process becomes strengthened. It activates sooner and lasts longer. Explains: Drug addiction To reduce the B state Anti-reward circuit

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Pavlov

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Unconditional stimulus (US) Elicits a particular response without any prior training, e.g., meat powder elicits salivation... here meat powder is the US Unconditional response (UR) The response elicited by an US, automatic unlearned response e.g. meat powder elicits salivation... here salivation is the UR Conditional stimulus (CS) Initially a relatively neutral stimulus, comes to elicit a response due to pairings with an unconditional stimulus, e.g. a tone paired with food will come to elicit salivation... the tone is the CS Conditional response (CR) A response that comes to be elicited by the CS as a result of previous pairings of the CS and US. In the example we are working with salivation is both the CR and UR. The UR is salivation following the presentation of the meat powder, whereas the CR is salivation in response to the tone URs and CRs are not always the same

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Fear conditioning:

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Fear is conditioned to a neutral stimulus paired with an aversive US Watson: Little Albert Species typical defense responses Little Albert cried Freezing for many species (including rats) Used as a measurement of fear Conditioned Suppression: Another way of measuring fear Suppression ratio: CS responding / (CS responding + pre-CS responding) It will be 0 if the CS causes complete suppression of the behavior Ex. 0 / 0+30 = 0 If there is no suppression it will = 0.5 Ex. 30 / 30+30 = 0.5 Lower values = MORE learning

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Fear Conditioning: Eyeblink conditioning

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Early component of startle response Found in many species (rats, humans, etc.) Tone—Airpuff Blink ... Tone Blink Used to study many things: Aging, Alzheimer's disease, development, neurobiology of learning, etc. We know the neural circuitry underlying this! See box 3.2 p 77

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Fear Conditioning: Sign tracking (aka autoshaping):

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Animals tend to approach and contact stimuli that signal availability of food Ex. A pigeon will approach and peck a key light that signals the availability of food even though pecking at the light is NOT required for food delivery. US: Food CS: Key Light CR: Pecking at the light

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Fear Conditioning: Taste Aversion Learning:

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One-trial learning (can occur for both taste aversion and fear conditioning) Long-delay learning Up to 6 hours between CS (ex. taste) and US (ex. sickness) CS: Taste, smell... US: Sickness (from food poising, LiCl, radiation, etc)... UR: nausea/ Illness... CR: avoidance of food with same taste/ smell

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Excitatory Conditioning:

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Conditioning trial Intertrial interval (ITI) Interstimulus interval (ISI)... aka CS-US interval Types of conditioning procedures: (know Figure 3.7!) Short-delay conditioning Trace conditioning Long-delay conditioning Simultaneous conditioning Backwards conditioning Control procedures: Pseudo-conditioning Random control procedure Explicitly unpaired control Effectiveness of common conditioning procedures ISI Trace interval (TI) Inhibitory conditioning Predicting the absence of a US ( CS: no US.... Aka CS-) Procedure: standard: CS+-> US.... CS+ with CS- -> no US Differential inhibition: CS+-> US ... CS- -> no US How to test for conditioning inhibition Summation Retardation of acquisition Must meet both requirements!!!

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Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: Mechanisms

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So in the previous chapter we mostly studied simple stimulus and response behaviors... but we're far more complicated. Habituation and Sensitization mostly describe simple stimulus/response behaviors but we exist in a world with sequences of stimuli.

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CS and US relativity Novelty of CS and US: Latent inhibition:

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CS- preexposure: (Procedure) Similar to habitation Attentional mechanism

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Novelty of CS and US: US-preexposure

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Associative interference mechanism Context

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Novelty of CS and US: US and CS salience

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more salient = more rapid acquisition ways of increasing salience

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Novelty of CS and US: CS-US relevance

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Garcia and Koelling experiment (Figure 4.3) Taste vs audiovisual cues (CSs) paired with shock or sickness (USs) Sickness pairs well with taste and shock with audiovisual... not visa versa

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Novelty of CS and US: Higher-order conditioning

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Procedure: 1: CS1->US ... 2: CS2->CS1 (Figure 4.4) First-order cond'g->second-order cond'g-> third-order cond'g Difference between higher-order conditioning and inhibitory cond'g Number of non-US trials Simultaneous vs one after the other Simultaneous favors inhibitory cond'g

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Novelty of CS and US: Sensory preconditioning

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Two CSs paired and become associated before either is presented with US (Figure 4.5) Food poisoning example

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Novelty of CS and US: Stimulus-substitution

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(Figure 4.6) in Pavlovian conditioning, the theory that the conditioned stimulus substitutes for the unconditioned stimulus; assumes the CR is essentially the same as the UR

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Novelty of CS and US: US determining nature of CR

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Pigeons pecking the light with beak open when US was food and with mouth closed when US was water... in the same manner they would do if they were consuming those USs

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Novelty of CS and US: Homeostasis:

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physiological mechanisms that serve to maintain the stability of critical physiological functions Negative feed back loop Drug tolerance (Figure 4.8.. box 4.1)

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Novelty of CS and US: S-S vs S-R

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S-S: CS does not elicit a CR directly.. the CS activates a memory of the US.. which elicits the response S-R: CS/US pairings leads to a new S-R response between the CS and CR How to test which it is: US devaluation Figure 4.12 Train normally... then once learned change the value of the US.. have a control group that continues to use the same US If you do this the group that had the decreased US value showed a smaller CR even though the CS was never paired with the devalued US This is evidence for S-S learning

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Novelty of CS and US: Blocking (Kamin)

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Figure 4.13 Procedure: Phase 1: Group 1: CS1 US Group 2: nothing Phase 2: Groups 1 and 2: CS1+CS2 US Phase 3: Groups 1 and 2: Test CS2 Group 1 will learn very little about CS2... even though it was repeatedly paired with the US in phase 2

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Rescorla-Wagner Model:

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Surprise of US Blocking taught us that stimuli must be surprising for something to be learned.... ΔV= k(λ-V) ΔV = change in associative strength k = salience of CS * salience of US (each is 01.. the book doesn't really go into... so keep constant for examples) λ = asymptote V = total learning accrued so far in training λ-V = Surprise Over-expectation = the loss of associative value despite no change in US V (cs1+ cs2) = Vcs1 + Vcs2 = 2λ Conditioned Inhibition: CS- acquires negative associative strength Extinction: Figure 4.16 Similar to over-expectation Problems with the Rescorla-Wagner model (know all the things it does NOT account for and why!!) Extinction of conditioned inhibition It does not bring it to 0.. it actually normally makes it more inhibitory Extinction is NOT the reverse of acquisition... it is NEW learning

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Attentional Models of Conditioning

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assume that for conditioning to occur participants must pay attention to CS; disrupt attention= disrupt learning Attention to CS Will determine how surprising the US was on a preceding trial

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Instrumental Behavior: behavior that is instrumental in producing certain consequences

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Goal oriented behavior

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Thorndike's Law of Effect: if a response in the presence of a stimulus is followed by a satisfying event, the association between the stimulus (S) and response (R) is strengthened. If a R is with a S that is followed by an annoying event, the S-R association is weakened.

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(Remember the cat puzzle box from the video, understand figure 5.2)

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Discrete trial procedures: instrumental response is performed only once during each trial... trail ends with animal being removed

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Example: maze running

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Free-operant procedures: can repeat the instrumental response over and over again

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Example: lever pressing

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Shaping:

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reinforcement of successive approximations of the desired response at the beginning of training and nonreinforcement of other behaviors at the end.

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Types of instrumental conditioning procedures (Figure 5.1):

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Positive reinforcement: increases the rate of responding by giving an appetitive stimulus Punishment: decreases the rate of responding by giving an aversive stimulus when response is given Negative reinforcement: increases responding by removing an aversive stimulus when response is given Omission: decreasing responding by removing appetitive stimulus when response is given

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Schedules of Reinforcement: In a Fixed-Ratio (FR) schedule, the animal is reinforced after a certain number of correct responses.

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FR1 or continuous reinforcement (CRF) schedule means that the animal is reinforced after every response. FR5 means after every 5 responses.

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Schedules of reinforcement: In a Variable-Ratio (VR) schedule, the animal is rewarded on average after a certain number of responses.

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VR5 means that the reward might come after anything from 1 to 9 responses, but the average over time will work out to 5 responses per reinforcement.

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Schedules of reinforcement: In a Fixed-Interval (FI) schedule, the animal is reinforced after a certain amount of time, assuming that they then make a correct response.

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FI3 means that the animal will next be able to be reinforced when producing the correct behavior 3 seconds after they were last reinforced.

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Schedules of reinforcement: In a Variable-Interval (VI) schedule, the animal is rewarded on average after a certain amount of time.

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VI5 means that the animal might need to wait anywhere from 1 to 10 seconds for a response to be rewarded on any given trial, but the average wait will be 5 seconds.

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