question

learning

answer

relatively permanent change in behavior and mental processes due to experience

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conditioning

answer

process of learning associations between stimuli and behavioral responses

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classical conditioning

answer

learning through involuntarily paired associations; it occurs when a previously neutral stimulus (NS) is paired (associated) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR)

question

What is conditioning another word for?

answer

learning

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True/False: Some responses are inborn, but still need conditioning or learning.

answer

False

question

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

answer

stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response (UCR) without previous conditioning

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unconditioned response (UCR)

answer

unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that occurs without previous conditioning

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neutral stimulus (NS)

answer

stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

answer

previously neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), now elicits a conditioned response (CR)

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conditioned response (CR)

answer

learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that occurs because of previous repeated pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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conditioned emotional response (CER)

answer

classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus (NS)

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What study did John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conduct? Why is this study controversial?

answer

They conducted an experiment with an 11-month-old infant named Albert. They used a white lab rat, and whenever the rat was placed in front of him, the researchers would produce a loud noise to frighten Albert and produce associations within Albert between the rat and loud noises so that Albert would become afraid of the rat. It is controversial because Watson and Rayner deliberately created a serious fear in Albert, and they also ended the experiment without extinguishing (removing) that fear. Also, their results were not measured objectively.

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What is Watson credited with?

answer

He is credited with founding the new approach known as behaviorism, which explains behavior as a result of observable stimuli (in the environment) and observable responses (behavioral actions).

question

What are many of our likes, dislikes, prejudices, and fears a product of?

answer

conditioned emotional responses (CER)

question

What successful ad campaigns based on classical conditioning did Watson come up with?

answer

Johnson and Johnson baby power, Maxwell House coffee, Lucky Strike cigarettes

question

(There's a picture of a door that reads "PAVLOV DOG LABS". Beside this door is a sign under a doorbell that says "PLEASE DON'T RING BELL".) Based on the humor in this cartoon, the sound of the doorbell would be a(n) _______, and the dogs inside Pavlov's laboratory would begin salivating, which would be a(n) _____. a. unconditioned stimulus (UCS), conditioned response (CR) b. conditioned stimulus (CS), conditioned response (CR) c. neutral stimulus (NS), unconditioned response (UCR) d. none of these options

answer

b. conditioned stimulus (CS), conditioned response (CR)

question

Eli's grandma gives him a Tootsie Roll every time she visits. When Eli sees his grandma arriving, his mouth begins to water. In this example, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is ______.

answer

his grandma

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After conditioning, the _____ elicits the ______.

answer

conditioned stimulus (CS); conditioned response (CR)

question

In John Watson's demonstration of classical conditioning with Little Albert, the unconditioned stimulus was ______. a. symptoms of fear b. a rat c. a bath towel d. a loud noise

answer

d. a loud noise

question

After pairing the rat with a loud noise, Little Albert demonstrated an intense emotional reaction to the sight of the rat. His emotional response is an example of a(n) _____. a. CS b. UCS c. CER d. UCR

answer

c. CER (conditioned emotional response)

question

What are the six principles of classical conditioning?

answer

acquisition, stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and higher-order conditioning

question

acquisition

answer

basic classical conditioning when a neutral stimulus (NS) is consistently paired with an unconditional stimulus (UCS) so that the NS comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR)

question

delayed conditioning

answer

the NS is presented before the UCS and remains until the UCR begins; generally yields the fastest learning

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backward conditioning

answer

the UCS is presented before the NS; least effective in learning

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stimulus generalization

answer

stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS) elicit a conditioned response (CR)

question

simultaneous conditioning

answer

NS presented at the same time as UCS

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trace conditioning

answer

UCS presented before NS

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stimulus discrimination

answer

only the conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits the conditioned response (CR)

question

extinction

answer

gradual disappearance of a conditioned response (CR); occurs when unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is withheld whenever the conditioned stimulus (CS) is preseneted

question

True/False: Extinction is not unlearning.

answer

True

question

spontaneous recovery

answer

sudden, temporary reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR)

question

higher-order conditioning

answer

neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned (CS)

question

A baby is bitten by a dog and then is afraid of all small animals. This is an example of _____. a. stimulus discrimination b. extinction c. reinforcement d. stimulus generalization

answer

d. stimulus generalization

question

When a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce the learning of a second conditioned stimulus, _____ has occurred.

answer

higher-order conditioning

question

If you wanted to use higher-order conditioning to get Little Albert to fear Barbie dolls, you would present a Barbie doll with ____. a. a loud noise b. the original unconditioned response c. the white rate d. the original conditioned response

answer

c. the white rat

question

Like most of us, your heart rate and blood pressure greatly increase when the fire alarm sounds. If the fire alarm system was malfunctioning and rang every half hour, by the end of the day, your hear rate and blood pressure would no longer increase. Using classical conditioning terms, explain this change in your response.

answer

You no longer respond to the sound of the fire alarm because your response has been extinguished, which occurs when the UCS is repeatedly withheld, and the association between the CS and the UCS is broken.

question

(There's a cartoon of a tape dispenser and two snails. Under the two snails, it reads: "I don't care if she is a tape dispenser. I love her.") Which of the six basic principles of classical conditioning best explain(s) this cartoon?

answer

stimulus generalization

question

True/False: The best way to maintain a desired behavior is to reward every response.

answer

False

question

True/False: Punishment is a very effective way to change long-term behavior.

answer

False

question

True/False: Negative reinforcement is another type of punishment.

answer

False

question

True/False: Prejudiced and superstitious people are born that way.

answer

False

question

True/False: B.F. Skinner raised his daughter in cage-like "Skinner box," which led to her adult mental illness.

answer

False

question

What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

answer

Classical conditioning is based on what happens BEFORE we INvoluntarily respond, and operant conditioning is based on what happens AFTER we VOLUNTARILY perform a behavior.

question

operant conditioning

answer

learning through voluntary behavior and its subsequent consequences; reinforcement increases behavioral tendencies, whereas punishment decreases them

question

reinforcement

answer

strengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur

question

punishment

answer

weakens a response and it makes it less likely to occur

question

Law of Effect

answer

Thorndike's rule that the probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when it is followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence.

question

True/False: What is reinforcing or punishing for one person may not be so for another.

answer

True

question

What do primary reinforcers satisfy?

answer

biological needs

question

What do secondary reinforcers satisfy?

answer

learned needs

question

primary reinforcers

answer

stimuli that increase the probability of a response because they satisfy an unlearned, biological need (e.g. foo, water, and sex)

question

secondary reinforcers

answer

stimuli that increase the probability of a response because of their learned value (e.g. money and material possessions)

question

positive reinforcement

answer

adding (or presenting) a stimulus, thereby strengthening a response and making it more likely to recur

question

negative reinforcement

answer

taking away (or removing) a stimulus, thereby strengthening a response and making it more likely to recur

question

True/False: Negative reinforcement and punishment mean the same thing.

answer

False

question

Premack Principle

answer

using a naturally occurring high-frequency response to reinforce and increase low-frequency responses

question

What does "schedule of reinforcement" refer to?

answer

The rate or interval at which responses are reinforced

question

continuous reinforcement

answer

every correct response is reinforced

question

partial/intermittent reinforcement

answer

some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced

question

True/False: A continuous schedule of reinforcement is an efficient system for maintaing long-term behaviors.

answer

False

question

Name the four partial schedules of reinforcement.

answer

fixed ratio (FR), variable ratio (VR), fixed interval (FI), variable interval (VI)

question

fixed ratio (FR) schedule

answer

reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses; the ratio (number of amount) is fixed

question

variable ratio (VR) schedule

answer

reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the ratio (number of amount) varies

question

fixed interval (FI) schedule

answer

reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed; the interval (time) is fixed

question

variable interval (IV) schedule

answer

reinforcement occurs unpredictably; the interval (time) varies

question

shaping

answer

reinforcement delivered for successive approximations of the desired response

question

positive punishment

answer

adding (or presenting) a stimulus, thereby weakening a response and making it less likely to occur

question

negative punishment

answer

taking away (or removing) a stimulus, thereby weakening a response and making it less likely to occur

question

Name six side affects of punishment

answer

passive aggressiveness, avoidance, inappropriate modeling, temporary suppression versus elimination, learned helplessness, increased aggression

question

Name the five principles of how to effectively use reinforcement and punishment

answer

Provide clear directions and feedback. Use appropriate timing. Be consistent. Follow correct order of presentation. Combine key learning principles.

question

True/False: Both reinforcement and punishment should come after the behavior, never before.

answer

True

question

Name the two pioneers of operant conditioning.

answer

Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner

question

Name the two pioneers of classical conditioning.

answer

John Watson and Ivan Pavlov

question

Name the major similarities between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

answer

acquisition (shaping), generalization, discrimination, extinction, spontaneous recovery, higher-order conditioning (discriminative stimulus)

question

discriminative stimulus

answer

cue signaling when a specific response will lead to the expected reinforcement

question

(Picture of mother smiling and baby smiling) For both the mother and baby in this photo, touch appears to be _____. a. negative reinforcement b. a secondary reinforcer c. continus reinforcement d. positive reinforcement

answer

d. positive reinforcement

question

Negative punishment _____ and negative reinforcement ______ the likelihood the response will continue.

answer

decreases; increases

question

Partial reinforcement schedules make responses more _____ to extinction.

answer

resistant

question

Andriana is very disruptive in class, and her teacher uses various forms of punishment hoping to decrease her misbehavior. List five potential problems with this approach.

answer

"Answers vary and may include: passive aggressiveness, avoidance, inappropriate modeling, temporary suppression versus elimination, learned helplessness, and increased aggression."

question

cognitive-social theory

answer

emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning in behavior

question

insight

answer

sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution

question

What experiment did Kohler conduct and what type of learning did it designate?

answer

He used chimpanzees as his subjects and placed a banana just out of their reach. There was a stick inside of the cage with the chimpanzee. This experiment led to designating insight learning.

question

cognitive map

answer

mental image of a three-dimensional space that an organism has navigated

question

latent learning

answer

hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs

question

What experiment did Tolman conduct? What did it build?

answer

He had three different groups of rats explore a maze. The first group had no reinforcement. The second group had food when they reached the end of the maze. The third group had no reinforcement until ten days after the study began, and then they were given food when they reached the end of the maze. This helped build their cognitive maps.

question

observational learning

answer

learning new behaviors or information by watching and imitating others (also known as social learning or modeling)

question

What study did Bandura conduct?

answer

He set up experiments to learn whether children learn to be aggressive by watching others be aggressive. This reflects observational learning.

question

What are the four key factors in observational learning?

answer

attention, retention, reproduction, and reinforcement

question

_____ were influential in early studies of cognitive learning.

answer

Kohler and Tolman

question

The chimpanzee in Kohler's insight experiment _______. a. used trial-and-error to reach a banana placed just out of reach b. turned its back on the banana out of frustration c. sat for a while, then used a stick to bring the banana within reach d. didn't like bananas

answer

c. sat for awhile, then used a stick to bring the banana within reach

question

Learning that occurs in the absence of a reward and remains hidden until some future time when it can be retrieved is called _____.

answer

latent learning

question

Mental images of an area that an organism has navigated are known as _____.

answer

cognitive maps

question

Bandura's observational learning studies focused on how ______. a. rats learn cognitive maps through exploration b. children learn aggressive behaviors by observing aggressive models c. cats learn problem solving through trial and error d. chimpanzees learn problem solving through reasoning

answer

b. children learn aggressive behaviors by observing aggressive models

question

What does NGF stand for?

answer

nerve growth factor

question

mirror neurons

answer

brain cells that fire both when performing specific actions and when observing specific actions or emotions of another. This "mirroring" may explain empathy, imitation, language, and the emotional deficits of some mental disorders

question

How does learning affect the brain?

answer

New synaptic connections are created, a thicker cortex develops, nerve growth factor increases, synapses are more fully developed, and more dendritic branching occurs.

question

What does learning mean from a evolutionary perspective?

answer

Learning is an adaptation that enables organisms to survive and prosper in a constantly changing world.

question

taste aversion

answer

classically conditioned negative reaction to a particular taste that has been associated with nausea or other illness

question

biological preparedness

answer

built-in (innate) readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses

question

instinctive drift

answer

conditioned responses shift (or drift) back toward innate response patterns

question

____ neurons may be responsible for human empathy and imitation.

answer

Mirror

question

How did Garcia condition a taste aversion in coyotes?

answer

Garcia and his colleagues laced freshly killed sheep with a chemical that caused nausea and vomiting in coyotes. After the coyotes ate the tainted meat and became ill, they avoided all sheep.

question

_____ occurs when an animal's learned responses tend to shift backward toward innate response patterns.

answer

instinctive drift

question

biofeedback

answer

involuntary bodily process (such as blood pressure or heart rate) is recorded, and the information is fed back to an organism to increase voluntary control over that bodily function

question

Politicians often depict their opponent as immoral and irresponsible because they know it helps create a ____ toward their rival. a. classically conditioned phobia b. negative social-learning cue c. conditioned aversive response d. negative conditioned emotional response (CER)

answer

d. negative conditioned emotional response (CER)

question

Biofeedback reinforces desired physiological changes that have beneficial results. This makes is a(n) _____. a. operant conditioner b. primary reinforcer c. secondary reinforcer d. biological marker

answer

c. secondary reinforcer

question

You insist on wearing a red sweater each time you take an exam because you believe it helps you get higher scores. This is an example of _____. a. classical conditioning b. secondary reinforcement c. superstition d. redophilia reinforcement

answer

c. superstition

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