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behavioral genetics

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the study of how heredity and environment affect us

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evolutionary psychology

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the application of the principles of evolution to explain behavior and mental processes

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chromosomes

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threadlike, linear strands of DNA encoded with the genes from parents (mother and father each have 23)

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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

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main constituent of chromosomes found in all living organisms, which transmit hereditary characteristics from parents to children

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genes

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a segment of DNA that occupies a specific place on a particular chromosome and carries the code for hereditary transmission; most important and basic building blocks of our entire biological inheritance

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dominant

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reveals its trait whenever the gene is present

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recessive

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normally expressed only if the other gene in the pair is also this way

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polygenic

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controlled by multiple genes

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monozygotic; dizygotic

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one egg; two eggs

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heritability

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the percentage of variation in a population attributable to genetic factors rather than to differences in the environment

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cautions about heritability

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Heritability estimates apply to groups, not individuals; Genes and the environment are interactive and inseparable; Genetic traits are not fixed or inflexible

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natural selection

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process in which natural forces select traits that aid an organism's survival; occurs when a particular genetic trait gives an organism a reproductive advantage over others

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genetic mutations

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help explain behavior

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problem-solving tasks favoring women

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perceptual speed (quickly identify matching items), displaced objects (tell which item is missing), verbal fluency (list words beginning with same letter), precision manual tasks (place pegs in holes), mathematical calculations (compute the answer)

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problem-solving tasks favoring men

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spatial tasks (mentally rotate objects), target-directed motor skills (hit bull's eye), disembodying tests (find simple shape in more complex figures), mathematical reasoning (word problems)

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men vs. women in ancient societies

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men were hunters, while women were gatherers

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neurons

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the basic nerve cell responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting electrochemical information

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glial cells

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cells that provide support for neurons, as well as communication and oxygen within the nervous system

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direction of information flow in a neuron

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dendrites --> cell body --> axon --> terminal buttons of axon

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dendrites

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receive information from other cells and convey impulses toward the cell body

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cell body

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contains nucleus; receives information from dendrites --> stimulation --> message passed on to axon

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axon

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carries neuron's message to other body cells

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myelin sheath

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covers the axon to insulate and helps speed up neural impulses

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terminal buttons of axon

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form junctions with other cells and release chemicals called neurotransmitters

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multiple sclerosis

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disease in which the myelin sheath progressively deteriorates and the person gradually loses muscular coordination

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action potential

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an electrical impulse that carries information along the axon of a neuron; an all-or-nothing process

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neurotransmitters

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chemical messengers released when terminal buttons are triggered

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synapse

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gap where neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the nearby receiving neurons

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agonist drugs

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drugs that enhance or "mimic" the action of particular neurotransmitters

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antagonist drugs

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drugs that block or inhibit the effects

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endorphins

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chemicals similar in action to opiates such as morphine; elevate mood, reduce pain, memory, learning, blood pressure, appetite, and sexual activity

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Acetylcholine (ACh)

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neurotransmitter affecting muscle action, learning, memory, REM sleep, emotion; Alzheimer's disease if too little

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dopamine

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neurotransmitter affecting movement, attention, memory, learning, and emotion; schizophrenia if too much and Parkinson's if too little

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epinephrine (or adrenaline)

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neurotransmitter affecting emotional arousal, memory storage, and metabolism of glucose necessary for energy release

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GABA

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neurotransmitter affecting neural inhibition in the CNS, tranquilizing drugs like Valium increase its inhibitory effects and decrease anxiety

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glutamate

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neurotransmitter affecting neural excitation in the CNS, involved in memory, factor in migraines/anxiety/depression

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norepinephrine

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neurotransmitter affecting learning, memory, dreaming, emotion, waking from sleep, eating, alertness, wakefulness, reactions to stress

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serotonin

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neurotransmitter affecting mood, sleep, appetite, sensory perception, arousal, temperature regulation, pain suppression, and impulsivity

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endocrine system

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a network of glands that manufacture and secrete hormones into the bloodstream; growth/sexual characteristics, digestion, elimination

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hormones

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chemical messengers manufactured and secreted by the endocrine glands, which circulate in the bloodstream to produce bodily changes or maintain normal bodily functions; control the body's response to emergencies

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cortisol

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a stress hormone that boosts energy and blood sugar levels

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pineal gland

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gland that helps regulate sleep cycle and body rhythms

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pituitary gland

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gland that influences growth and lactation; also secretes many hormones, some of which affect other glands

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thyroid gland

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gland that affects metabolism

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parathyroid glands

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glands that help regulate calcium levels in the blood

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adrenal glands

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glands above the kidneys; arouse the body, control stress response, regulate salt balance and some sexual functioning

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pancreas

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organ that controls the blood's sugar level

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ovaries

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secrete female sex hormones

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testes

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secrete male sex hormones

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sensory neurons

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respond to physical stimuli such as light and sound waves by sending neural messages to our brain regarding the environment

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motor neurons

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respond by transmitting signals that activate our muscles and glands

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central nervous system (CNS)

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the part of the nervous system consisting of the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD; responsible for processing and organizing information

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peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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the part of the nervous system composed of the NERVES and NEURONS connecting the CNS to the rest of the body; carries messages (action potentials) between the CNS and the periphery of our body

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nervous system

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consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body

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spinal cord

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sends information to and from the brain and PNS and controls reflexes

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brainstem

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part of the brain that helps screen incoming information and controls arousal (being awake and alert)

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brain

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structure that directs mental processes and maintains basic life functions

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somatic nervous system (SNS)

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part of the PNS that connects the CNS to sensory receptors; controls VOLUNTARY muscles and sends motor messages to muscles

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autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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part of the PNS that connects the CNS to sensory receptors; controls INVOLUNTARY basic life functions, such as heartbeat and response to stress

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sympathetic nervous system

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part of the autonomic nervous system; arouses body and expends energy in times of stress: "fight-or-flight"

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parasympathetic nervous system

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part of the autonomic nervous system; calms body and conserves energy: "rest-and-digest"

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neuroplasticity

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the brain's ability to reorganize, retrain itself, and change its structure and function to another location

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neurogenesis

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the process by which new neurons are generated

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stem cells

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rare, immature cells that can grow and develop into any type of cells depending on the chemical signals they receive

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reflex

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an automatic response to a stimulus back to the spinal cord (i.e. knee-jerk reflex)

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actions of the sympathetic nervous system

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pupils dilate, salivation decreases, heart accelerates, lungs dilate, digestion and elimination decrease, orgasm, sweating increases

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actions of the parasympathetic nervous system

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pupils constrict, salivation increases, heart slows, lungs constrict, digestion and elimination increase, sexual arousal, no sweating

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lesioning

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systematically destroying bodily tissue to study the effects on behavior and mental processes

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noninvasive brain-imaging methods

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their use does not involve breaking the skin or entering the body

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localization of function

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certain brain structures are specialized to perform certain tasks, but most parts of the brain perform integrating, overlapping functions

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three major sections of the brain

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hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

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hindbrain

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the lower region of the brain; contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum

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medulla

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hindbrain structure responsible for vital automatic functions, such as respiration and heartbeat

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pons

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hindbrain structure involved in sleep & arousal, respiration, movement; relay station

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cerebellum

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coordinates movement and balance

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sensation pattern

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stimulus --> sensation --> perception

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stimulus

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external event

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sensation

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activation of sensory neurons

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perception

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consciously aware of event; meaning given to sensation

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left hemisphere

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speech; language (speaking, reading writing), linear thought, analytical, math, reasoning

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right hemisphere

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spacial ability and creativity; nonverbal (music and art), non-linear thought, synthetic

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midbrain

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section of the brain that helps us orient our eye and body movements to visual and auditory stimuli; works with pons to control SLEEP and level of AROUSAL

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reticular formation (RF)

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neurons that help screen incoming sensory information; controls SLEEP, AROUSAL, and focus of ATTENTION

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forebrain

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upper-level brain that contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebral cortex

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thalamus

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part of the forebrain that serves as the brain's switchboard, relaying sensory messages to the cerebral cortex; learning and memory

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hypothalamus

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part of the forebrain responsible for the body's internal state (HOMEOSTASIS); controls temperature and basic DRIVES such as hunger, thirst, sex, and aggression

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limbic system

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part of the forebrain responsible for emotions, drives, and memory

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hippocampus

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part of the forebrain that forms and retrieves our MEMORIES

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amygdala

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part of the forebrain that produces and regulates EMOTIONS, especially aggression and fear

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cerebral cortex

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the surface layer of the hemispheres responsible for most complex behaviors and higher mental processes

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convolutions

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wrinkles in the cerebral cortex that significantly increase its surface area

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four distinct lobes divided in the cerebral hemispheres

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frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

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frontal lobes

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lobes that receive and coordinate messages from other lobes; motor control/voluntary movement, speech production, and higher functions such as thinking, personality, emotion, and memory

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Broca's area

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part of lower-left frontal lobe; controls speech production

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parietal lobes

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lobes that receive and interpret bodily sensations

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somatosensory cortex

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part of parietal lobes; processes tactile information

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temporal lobes

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lobes responsible for hearing, language comprehension, memory, and some emotional control

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auditory cortex

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top of temporal lobes; processes sound

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Wernicke's area

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part of left temporal lobe; involved in language comprehension

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occipital lobes

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lobes responsible for vision and visual perception

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visual cortex

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part of occipital lobes; receives and processes visual information

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association areas

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"quiet" areas in the cerebral cortex involved in interpreting, integrating, and acting on information processed by other parts of the brain

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split-brain surgery

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the cutting of the corpus callosum to separate the brain's two hemispheres; used to treat epilepsy and provide info on the functions of the two hemispheres

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corpus callosum

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a bundle of neural fibers that connects the brain's two hemispheres

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signal detection theory

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1a. interference effects (noise > signal) 1b. sensitivity threshold 2. just noticeable difference (difference threshold--Weber's Law) 3. sensory adaptation

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sensory adaptation

answer

prolonged exposure to a stimulus affects sensory capacity: changes ability to perceive things

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