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Psychology Study Guide

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The literal translation of the Greek word psyche is knowledge of soul life

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"Psyche" can be translated as "conscious self" and the most basic goal of psychology is for humans to have a better understanding of their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, or to be conscious of themselves.

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One major advantage in learning to understand the mind and feelings is the ability to predict, and control the behavior of others as well as ourselves.

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Psychology - The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

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In psychology, the two main factors that influence behavior are cognitive, and physiological.

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Cognitive factor - A factor that deals with an organism's thinking and understanding.

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Physiological factor - A factor that deals with an organism's physical processes.

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You are tired because you stayed up all night studying for an exam, is an example of a physiological factor.

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You yell at your little sister because you have a headache that has worn down your patience and because you think she is intentionally bothering you. This is an example of cognitive and physiological factors.

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Companies spend enormous amounts of money each year on advertising that utilizes the principles of psychology because companies want to predict and influence your buying behavior.

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Hypothesis - An educated guess that is based on some phenomenon

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It is easier for psychologists to predict group behavior, rather than individual behavior because individuals vary

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The four goals of psychology are description, explanation, prediction and influence

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The analogies that can best represent the difference between basic and applied science is "Bird watching is to basic science as environmental conservation is to applied science."

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Psychological principles - A set of generally valid ideas about behavior

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Psychologists rely on the scientific method to ensure that all data are collected correctly

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You must repeat steps three and four in the scientific method to ensure that there are no discrepancies between theory and experiment and/or observation.

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Physiological psychology is the best example of psychology as a basic science

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If an American psychologist describes a woman from another country as possibly "sneaky" or "deceptive" because she hides her hands behind her back and refuses to make eye contact, how has the psychologist failed in their description of that woman? The psychologist has failed to account for their own cultural bias.

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Explanation is represented in the scenario "A psychologist examines the possible causes for a patient's fear of heights"

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Greeks used observation to begin to know the world.

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Dualism - The view that they physical and mental are separate and distinct

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The best interpretation of presence of dualism in this, "The brain is wider than the sky, for, put them side by side, the one the other will include with ease, and you beside." Is by placing the "you" beside the brain, the poem suggests that the physical person is separate and distinct from the mental capacities of the brain.

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According to phrenological science, if one of your brain organs was enlarged it got more use than the others.

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One of the major advances in psychology that occurred in the 19th century was the acceptance of the idea that specific mental processes are associated with discrete regions of the brain.

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Phrenology was most popular during the 1800s

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Aristotle wrote Para Psyche, considered to be the first book on psychology

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Dr. Franz Joseph Gall is known for his work with phrenology.

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Wilhelm Wundt established the first official psychology laboratory.

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Thomas Aquinas was a medieval scholar who wrote about the ventricular theory of the brain.

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"Jennifer was in a terrible car accident last year. Now, even the sound of screeching tires can make her anxious and afraid." This best exemplifies classical conditioning.

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In his book Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, John Watson laid out his objections to the study of mental processes.

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According to the Hierarchy of Needs, the first need that must be met is physiological.

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B.F. Skinner determined that nearly all behavior is determined by operant conditioning.

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A psychobiologist is most likely to use a brain scan

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Psychobiology - The field of psychology that studies the biology of behavior and mental processes

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Behaviorist psychology - The field of psychology that studies only behavior that can be observed directly

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Cognitive psychology - The field of psychology in which acquiring, storing, and using knowledge is likened to a computer.

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Humanistic psychology - The field of psychology that concerns itself with issues of human dignity, free will, and self reflection.

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Hierarchy of needs - A humanistic theory that states that humans are motivated to fulfill hierarchical needs

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About half of psychologists work in counseling or clinical psychology

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APA - The acronym for the chief professional organization for psychologists in the United States

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Most states require a licensing exam for psychologists who practice as psychotherapists or counselors

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Clinical psychologists assess and treat patients with psychological problems

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Forensic psychologists may be involved in multiple tasks such as consultating trial lawyers, clinical work in corrections settings, or formulating public policy in psychology and law.

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Industrial/Organizational psychologists are concerned with the relationship between people and their work environment.

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Educational psychologists try to understand the basic aspects of human learning as well as develop materials to aid the learning process.

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Sports psychologists are concerned with the psychological factors in athletic performance.

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The goals of psychology are measurement, prediction, and control

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Psychologists need to decide how they will measure the phenomenon they are interested in so that they can describe that phenomenon.

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Casual observation is the most common form of research used when observing animals in the wild.

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Following all of the steps of the scientific method makes psychological research scientific

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The best explanation of the importance of this sixth step is, it's important to report scientific findings so that the scientific method can begin again.

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You formulate a hypothesis after conducting research

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Psychologists often conduct research to prove an existing theory

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When collecting data, it is important that it be collected according to the design of the study

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In psychology, and in everyday life, people research to explain, predict, and change behavior.

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In psychology, there are three main types

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Psychological research questions must be objective, testable, and replicable

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To have a psychology research question that is objective means that the phenomenon can be observed without introducing personal bias

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The best interpretation of the statement "correlation does not imply causality" means that just because there is a relationship between two behaviors does not mean that one causes the other.

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A control group is necessary in all experiments

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Independent variable - The thing the researcher changes in the experiment

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Dependent variable - The thing that is influenced by another variable in an experiment

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Descriptive studies - Research that is designed to describe the characteristics or behaviors of a person or particular population

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Correlation research - Research that attempts to assess the relationship between two aspects of human behavior

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Experimental research - Research that attempts to test cause and effect between two things

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Propaganda - Information collected to convince people of the correctness of your view

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Belief justification - Information collected to support beliefs you already have

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Market research - Information collected by commercial organizations about the buying intentions of consumers

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Decision support Information collected by the government and industry before important decisions are made

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Objective research - Scientific research that is free from personal bias

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Case study - An intensive study of a person or group

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Surveys are sometimes problematic as a data collection method because they are base on "self report," which can be inaccurate.

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The general aim of all sampling methods are to obtain a sample that is representative of the target population

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The target population in the following study "Graduation rates among developmental college students" is college students who have taken developmental classes.

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Potentially rendering young women unable to have children, best explains the ethical dilemma in the study for the impact of drug x on fertility rates in young women.

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Axon - Long fibers that carry signals away from the cell body

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Dendrite - Short, highly branched fibers that carry signals toward the cell body

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Synaptic cleft - The space between two cells

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Efferent neuron - A type of neuron that sends information away from the central nervous system to muscles or glands

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Myelin sheath - The fatty material surrounding some axons

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Neurotransmitter - A type of chemical released from the tip of an axon into synaptic cleft when a nerve impulse arrives

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Afferent neuron - A type of neuron that sends information from the sensory receptors toward the central nervous system

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Node of Ranvier - Gaps in the myelin sheath

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Action potential - The reversal of the electrical potential in the plasma membrane of a neuron

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Interneuron - A type of neuron that sends information between sensory and motor neurons

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The nervous system is the body's communication network

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The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord

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The overall function of the peripheral nervous system is that it connects the central nervous system to other parts of the body.

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The Parasympathetic nervous system calms the body after strenuous physical activity

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The Autonomic nervous system controls involuntary muscles such as the heart

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The Somatic nervous system consists of the motor neuron pathways that innervate the skeletal muscles

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The sympathetic nervous system dominates in stressful or emergency situations and prepares the body for strenuous physical activity

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If the body's peripheral nervous system becomes nonfunctional the brain would create messages, but our bodies would never receive them.

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When humans touch something, nerve impulses travel to and from the brain at a rate up to 350 feet per second

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The parasympathetic system "rebound" is thought to be responsible for what's known s "runner's high."

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The cerebellum and the medulla oblongata are also part of the unconscious brain

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The corpus callosum connects/separates the right and left cerebral hemispheres

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Vertebrae - The ring-shaped bones surrounding the spinal cord

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Broca's area - The part of the brain's left hemisphere that is responsible for speaking ability

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The cerebrum is referred to as the "seat of consciousness"

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If a patient finds that he is able to read the name of an object, yet he cannot visualize what it is, it means that the two hemispheres of this patient's brain are not communicating.

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If a patient damages the Broca's area of the brain, the patient would be able to understand the word "mother," but would not be able to say it.

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The occipital lobe of the brain is responsible for vision

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The temporal lobe of the brain is responsible for receiving auditory signals

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The hypothalamus lobe of the brain regulates homeostasis

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Researchers can now see actual thought processes by measuring increases in blood flow and oxygen to different parts of the brain.

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PET's and PECT's commonly use radioactively-labeled materials such as oxygen, fluorine, carbon, and nitrogen.

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EEG is an older technique for monitoring brain activity.

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In PET scans, the breakdown of radioactive materials in the body and the release of gamma rays produce a functional view of the brain.

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MRI - Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high - quality two - or three - dimensional images of brain structures without injecting radioactive traces.

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CT - Uses a series of X-ray beams that are passed through the head

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fMRI - Detects changes in blood flow to particular areas of the brain to provide both an anatomical and a functional view of the brain

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PET - A scanner detects radioactive material that is injected or inhaled to produce an image of the brain

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EEG - Uses electrodes placed on the scalp to detect and measure patterns of electrical activity emanating from the brain.

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In 1929, the EEG made non-invasive study of the brain possible

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Although there are few definitive answers, researchers do believe that REM sleep is important in consolidating memory

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Non-REM sleep lasts 90-120 minutes

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There are 4-5 cycles of sleep in a typical night

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The best explanation of REM sleep as "paradoxical" sleep is because the brain is in a heightened state of excitement, while the body is virtually immobile.

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You're in stage one of sleep if your eyes are closed, but if aroused, you may feel like you have not slept.

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You're in stage two of sleep if you experience spontaneous periods of muscle tone mixed with periods of muscle relaxation.

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Insomnia is a chronic problem with obtaining enough sleep.

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Narcolepsy - A sudden, irresistible onset of sleep during waking hours.

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A somnambulist is a person who walks in his or her sleep.

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Heroin - Derived from the opium poppy, this drug is most often associated with the transmission of HIV/AIDS

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Marijuana - Derived from the cannabis plant, this drug interferes with memory and learning

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Alcohol - Liquid drug that, with prolonged use, can destroy the part of the brain responsible for short-term memory

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Cocaine - Derived from the coca plant, this drug traps a chemical called "dopamine" in the brain's reward system

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Inhalants - These legal drugs produce vapors that can destroy the fatty tissue protecting the nerve cells in the brain

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Ecstasy - This synthetic drug has both hallucinogenic and amphetamine-like properties, and it also destroys the cells that produce serotonin

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LSD - This major hallucinogen cause unpredictable effect on a user's personality and mood, and negative experiences with this drug are often referred to as a "bad trip"

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Steroids - Derived from the male hormone, testosterone, these drugs are used to enhance athletic performance, but can produce aggressive tendencies

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Tobacco - Nicotine is the active component of this drug, which can lead to lung cancer and emphysema

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Methamphetamine - This stimulant, known as "crystals" on the street, can produce heart palpitations, blurred vision, extended wakefulness, and damage to the brain

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Somatosenory - The area of the parietal lobe that is involved in sensation

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Sensation is the first stage in the chain of biochemical and neurological events that begins with a stimulus impinging upon a sensory organ

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The statement, "I hear a bell ringing," is an exemplary of perception

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Absolute threshold is the minimum of stimulation that it takes for an organism to perceive something happening around it 50% of the time

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Difference threshold - Is a threshold low enough to detect minute changes in important stimuli

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Signal detection has to do with how well we can detect weak signals measured by correct vs. incorrect responses."Tuning out" background noise is an example of sensory adaptation

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Psychophysics - Is a branch of psychology that describes the relationship between physical stimulus and our awareness of it

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When we perceive an event that has not occurred, we have perceived an illusion

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The initial step in vision occurs in the retina

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The photoreceptor neurons in the retina collect the light and send signals to a network of neurons that then generate electrical impulses that go to the brain

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The energies we experience as visible light are a thin slice from the broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation

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The three-color theory suggests, the retina contains three types of cones.

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If you have normal color vision, you are a trichromatic

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The retina, which consists of three layers of neurons (photoreceptor, bipolar and ganglion), is responsible for detecting the light from these images and then causing impulses to be sent to the brain along the optic nerve.

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Through a mechanical chain of events, sound waves traveling through the auditory canal cause miniscule vibrations in the eardrum.

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A woman gives birth to a set of fraternal twins: a girl and a boy. She also passes on a color-blindness gene. The boy is more likely to be color-blind from birth.

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Like other stimuli, odors can spontaneously evoke memories and feelings.

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One day, you accidentally touch a hot stove. You might perceive the pain because information about "heat" would be collected through your fingertips and transmitted by the peripheral nervous system to the parietal lobe of the central nervous system. The central nervous system would then interpret that information and send a response back to the peripheral nervous system.

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Although behaviorists emphasize environment, they almost totally deny the influence of biological variables on development.

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If an adolescent who has been struggling with classmates over her sexual orientation, also begins to have difficulties relating to her parent, psychosocial development is involved

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The three main domains of child development are physical, cognitive, and psychosocial

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Plato believed that children are born with everything they need to know and learning is simply the act of remembering these in-born thoughts and ideas.

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Piaget influenced the way that 20th century psychologists, educators, and philosophers think about the cognitive development of children.

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Terman introduced the Stanford-Binet Intelligence test.

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Freud emphasized the effects of environmental variables on development, stressed the importance of parental behavior during infancy

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Locke promoted his idea of the "tabula rasa" to describe child development

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Aristotle believed that development took place in a series of steps

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Aristotle thought that children were basically unformed adults

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"Every hour of every day, there are people who cannot forget a name, or make a slip of the tongue, or feel depressed; who cannot begin a love affair, or end a marriage, without wondering what the 'Freudian' reason may be." The best interpretation of this statement of this statement is that Freud's theories have been very influential on society

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According to Freud, the subconscious is the part of the psyche that we can access if prompted

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Freud believed development occurred through a series of conflicts with the psychosexual stages.

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According to Freud, fixations such as nail biting and sarcasm occur if conflicts with stage 1 are not resolved.

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A psychologist diagnoses a man with a narcissistic personality. According to Freud's theories, this man did not fully resolve his conflict in the stage phallic.

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The part of the largely rational, conscious, that is reality-oriented and problem solving is called the ego

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A blockage in development is called fixation

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The part of the unconscious that seeks to maximize pleasure and avoid discomfort without regard for he reality of a situation is called the id

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The moral and ethical part of the personality is called the superego

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Drive - An internal motivation to fulfill a need or reduce the negative aspects of an unpleasant situation

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Using Erikson's theories as a guide, the best explanation for the notion that adolescent "identity crisis" is the single most significant conflict a person must fact because, resolving the identity crisis will allow you to plan for, and make decisions about, future endeavors.

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Infancy is associated with Trust vs. Mistrust

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Young adulthood is associated with Intimacy vs. Isolation

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Toddler is associated with Autonomy (Independence) vs. Doubt (or shame)

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Early childhood is associated with Initiative vs. Guilt

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Elementary and middle school years are associated with Competence (aka "Industry") vs. Inferiority

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Adolescence is associated with Identity vs. Role Confusion

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Middle Adulthood is associated with Generativity vs. Stagnation

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Late Adulthood is associated with Integrity vs. Despair

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Like Freud, Erik Erikson believed that individuals achieve a sense of identity through a series of conflicts.

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Piaget's theory is based upon the idea that children gradually acquire the ability to understand the world around them through active engagement with it.

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In the concrete operation stage, children begin to process abstract concepts such as numbers

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In stage two of Piaget's model, the main focus of intellectual development is language and using symbols

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In the formal operation stage of Piaget's model, children learn to reason hypothetically and deductively

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The sensorimotor stage best describes this situation. After an accident, a man is left comatose and partially paralyzed. When he awakens he finds that he has lost the use of his legs and is unfamiliar with almost everything and everyone around him. After some time has passed, he regains sensation in his legs and must learn how to walk all over again. He also begins to become familiar with his friends and family, and looks forward to seeing them.

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Schema - A child's inability to view a situation from any other perspective beside their own.

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Assimilation - Is the process of trying to fit new objects into an existing schema

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Accommodation - The process of changing schema to fit the characteristics of a new object

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A child's inability to view a situation from any other perspective beside their own is known as preoperational egocentrism

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Symbolic pay occurs when a child fits a concrete object into an existing schema.

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