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When prior exposure to a stimulus has an unconscious influence on our substituent behavior. It is activated by a network of associations in the brain. Ex: If you were to spell feet/feat you would spell whatever version of the word you heard more or more recently.

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Priming

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Stimuli that fall beneath the threshold of conscious awareness. They are too faint, weak, or brief to be consciously affected, and even though we are not consciously aware of them, they can have an effect on our behavior.

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Subliminal Stimuli

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The theory that effect subliminal stimuli are too small and short lived to be considered valid to our conscious behavior.

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Subliminal Persuasion

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A concentration or focusing of mental activity.

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Attention

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The theory that we only pay attention to one thing rather than another thing. This is used so much so that we normally do not know what else is going on other than that one thing. This is principle is embodied in the cocktail party affect.

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Selective Attention

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Our ability to pay attention to one conversation, even when there are many other conversations going around us. But, even though when you are completely involved in one conversation, you can also hear your name being called out in a distance or in other conversations.

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Cocktail Party Affect

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The idea that when we try to pay attention to two or more things at once, there are limitations to your level of focus. And, the more you try to do at once, the less attentive you are going to be towards a certain thing.

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Divided Attention

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Refers to our inability to be aware of relatively large changes in a visual scene.

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Change Blindness

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A natural periodic suspension of consciousness.

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Sleep

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The cycle of behavior and physiology. It is found in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. Its individual variations are due to genetics and age.

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Circadian Rhythm

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Drop in performance.

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Circadian Low Points

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Machine that measures our stages of sleep through our synchronous activity of neurons, or brain waves.

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Electroencephalogram or EEG

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Around a 90 minutes cycle. That goes in order of NREM 1, NREM 2, NREM 3, NREM 2, and then REM. NREM lasts about four to six hours. And, REM sleep lasts for arounf 2.

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Cycle of Sleep Stages

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A level of slow-wave sleep due to its low level of frequency. Sleep walking and walking occur in this stage.

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NREM 3

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As sleep progresses, frequency decreases, and the amplitudes get higher between the stages 1 to 3.

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Sleep Frequency

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Rapid eye movement, that is a type of paradoxical sleep. Where, the longer you sleep, the longer you spend in this stage.

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REM

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The tendency of individuals deprived of REM sleep to go more quickly into REM and spend a longer time of sleep in REM. This is a tendency to make of for the amount of REM sleep lost.

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REM Rebound

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A coma state of sleep, where your body is active still active due to high brain activity, involved physiology. But your muscles are paralyzed. This is found in REM sleep.

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Paradoxical Sleep

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All animals exhibit REM sleep. Animals also dream like us.

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Animals & REM

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It improves mood, memory, concentration, immune, and bodily functions.

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Why do we sleep?

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Lack of sleep leads to fatigue, irritability, inattention, learning, and hallucinations. It disrupts the immune system, hunger and body fat hormones. It may cause microsleeps. Also, can never really adopt this within a sleep schedule, and your functions are impaired whether you like it or not. You are technically legally intoxicated from this effect.

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Sleep Deprivation

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A period of sleep that lasts for fractionated seconds to seconds at a time. A person may be unaware that they are experiencing this.

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Microsleeps

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Sleep is necessary to restock, repair, and reorganize. It also increases protein synthesis. Helps remove waste products from the brain. Helps improve learning and memory.

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Restorative Theory to Sleep

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Perceptual experiences that happen during sleep, especially REM sleep.

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Dreams

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Often include elements of our waking lives that reflect waking thoughts, concerns, and experiences. It can also consist of things that we are lacking during the day, like if f you were isolate during the day. Your dreams may be more social.

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Dream Content

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Used for for some importance of learning and memory: The time where memories are consolidated and are re-learned. It is also used for emotional stability, like how after a stressed out person wants to sleep.

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REM Dreams

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Used for different purposes than REM, where it involves the re-learning simpler tasks.

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NREM Dreams

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Thought to be the cause of dreaming. Where it is activated by dreams, due to the bursts of activity created in the brain's cortex, from the random activities made throughout the day. The brain, then, tries to make sense of random activation by making up a story for it.

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Synthesis Hypothesis

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Undesirable behaviors or experiences related to sleep.

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Parasomnia

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Most common sleep disorder that involves the lack of sleep.

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Insomnia

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Sleep disorder where the common occurrence of sleepiness and sleep attacks happens constantly in someones daily life. It is triggered by emotions and creates cataplexy.

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Narcolepsy

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Loss of muscle tone.

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Cataplexy

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Falling asleep

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Hypnogogic

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Awakening

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Hypnopompic

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Sleep disorder characterized by a random paralysis of REM sleep that is superimposed based on their surroundings. It usually appears in teens around the age of 20. It is due to a loss of orexin or hypocretin, caused by an autoimmune disorder. Many people who experience this might say they were abducted by aliens.

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Hypnogogic and Hypnopompic Hallucinations.

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Speech that has very little to do with reality. More common in kids, influenced by genetics. Can happen from sleep deprivation, or from a fever. Unclear what causes it.

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Sleeptalking

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Occurs during NREM 3, a phenomena where a person gets up, may walk, and do repetitive behaviors. It is more common in kids, and is influenced by genetics. Its unclear what causes it. This cycling repeatedly occurs between wakefulness and deep sleep. It is usually caused by sleep deprivation.

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Sleepwalking

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Scary dreams that occur during REM. It is more common for people who have been sleeping longer.

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Nightmare

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Characterized by subjects are waken up in a nervous psychological terror. People normally cannot remember the dream. It occurs during NREM 3, but it is more likely to happen in the earlier part of night, due to the REM & NREM cycle. Its more common in kids.

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Night Terror

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Disorder characterized by people acting out their dreams in REM. Its more common in men over 50, and is usually related to Parkinson's disorder.

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REM Behavior Disorder

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Influence psychological processes by changing and altering the functions of the brain. They directly affect neurotransmitters which alter mood and perception.

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Psychoactive Drugs

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Drug that enhances, or mimics, a certain neurotransmitter in parts of the brain.

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Agonist

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Drug that typically inhibit, or blocks, the effects of a neurotransmitter.

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Antagonist

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Repetitive and compulsive drug use. Its attributed to physical and psychological components.

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Addiction

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Needing more of a certain drug for the same effect.

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Tolerance

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Undesirable effects to quitting a drug. Symptoms of that drug tends to recreate the opposite effects of a drug. This happens in order to maintain the normal homeostasis of your body's will to counteract the negative effects of that drug.

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Withdrawal Syndrome

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Dangerously amplifies the effects of a drug. Where 1 drug + 1 drug can make 4x the amount of drug effects.

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Multiple Drug Interaction

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In drug abuse and addiction, obtaining that drug almost becomes a person's primary biological need. People also maybe genetically predisposed to develop addiction. Ex: People without dopamine, who do not experience pleasure and reward, tend to seek out what provides the missing pleasure, like addiction, sex, and other things.

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Reward-Deficiency

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Slow things down in the nervous system. Tends to produce relaxation and drowsiness.It produces less anxiety. Ex: Alcohol, Opiate, Benzos

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Depressants

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Depressant that Alters many different neurotransmitters and has a widespread effect on the brain that impairs every aspect of the brain. It impact the frontal lobes, where it creates a lack of inhibitions or decision making. And causes less of an ability to control emotions. It impairs the, hippocampus, that effects memory. The cerebellum's balance and motor control are also effected. Last, it also directly effects the brain stem's reticular formation, where consciousness is distorted. And the brain stem's medulla, that controls heartbeat and breathing. It is known that 50% of drug abuse and crimes arise from this. And produces a serious, deadly withdrawal syndrome for hardcore addicts.

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Alcohol

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Prescription drugs like valium, xanax, librium, et cetera. Also can be found in anxiolytics and tranquilizers. It causes drowsiness and relaxation, where its a GABA agonist, that acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter.

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Benzodiazepines

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Drug like morphine, heroin, codeine, vicodin, oxycontin. They are Endorphins agonists. They act as pain-killers that induce sleep and euphoria. They are extremely addictive, and withdrawal would create trouble sleeping, and subjects will undergo a lot of pain.

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Opiates

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Stimulant that is an adenosine antagonist, that creates wakefulness.

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Caffeine

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Stimulant that is an acetylcholine, DA, NE, opioids antagonist. It is extremely addictive.

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Nicotine

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Stimulant that acts as an antagonist to norephedrine, dopamine, serotonin, et cetera. It creates a euphoric rush of confidence, optimism, well-being. And even in small doses it can still give you a heart attack. It is extremely addictive due to its immediate rush of euphoria.

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Cocaine

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Type of dug that can be found in methenamine, dexedrine and benzedrine. It is commonly compared to cocaine, but has longer affects. It affect alertness, euphoria, appetite suppression, and hyperactivity. It has very addictive potentials.

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Amphetamines

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An antagonist of dopamine and 5-HT. It may cause damage to serotonin neurons. It creates euphoria, feelings of closeness, and hyperactivity.

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MDMA or Ecstasy

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Psychedelic like LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline or peyote. It works by influencing serotonin. It produce hallucinations, that is exerted by a loss of contact with reality, and it alter thinking and emotions. It also produce euphoria. It has low addiction potentials due to tolerance and is known to have possible therapeutic uses for depression, drug addiction, and PTSD. But these drugs' effects can be unpredictable, and can promote psychosis or loss of contact with reality. It is also known to cause some cases of schizophrenia.

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Hallucinogens

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Its main active ingredient is THC. Its an antagonist to cannabinoid receptors in our body. It alters perceptions, produces relaxation, disinhibition, and creates euphoria. It can disrupt memory, concentration, attention, and motor coordination. It has low toxicity, and that no deaths have been related to it. It has possible medical uses like being therapeutic to pain, nausea, and can act as an appetite stimulant.

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Marijuana

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Technique used to increase a person's susceptibility to suggestion, where it creates a focus based on monotonous stimuli. It is not effective for memory retrieval and drug addiction. It can be effective for treating pain relief, and obesity. It is caused by the placebo effect, where an altered state of consciousness dissociation is created. It is also caused by selective attention to distractions and relaxation. It embodies the role theory, by which a persons complies to the demands of a situation. It is known to have no control over total conscious behavior.

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Hypnosis

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A relatively permanent change in behavior, or knowledge, created through experience. And this practice is strongly associated with behavioral psychology. This practice helps us adapt. Where, the species who have a greater capacity for this, tend to be less controlled by biology, and are more flexible with behavior changes.

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Learning

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We learn by noticing patterns and making associations. And through the embodiment of prediction, like "A" determines "B."

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How do we learn?

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The type of learning where organisms learn to associate between two stimuli. Where, this learnt behavior becomes involuntary. Where that stimulus that produces a response is already associated with another stimulus, that already produces a similar response. It was founded by Ivan Pavlov.

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Classical Conditioning

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A Russian psychologist, earned a nobel prize, who discovered classical conditioning. He based his findings on his Dog Salivation Experiment.

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Ivan Pavlov

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An experiment that that studied how dogs would salivate in anticipation to being fed. Ivan used a bell every time he was about to bring the dogs food. The dogs would then salivate every time the bell rang because the dogs would predict, that when the bell rung, they would be fed. Unconditioned stimulus: Pavlov's dog food; Unconditioned Response: Salvation; Conditioned Stimulus: The bell; Conditioned Response; Salivating to the bell

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Pavlov's Dog Experiment

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Something that naturally creates a response without learning or pairing.

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Unconditioned Stimulus

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The naturally occurring, reflective, automatic reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.

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Unconditioned Response

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The stimulus that has the ability to produce a response, as a result of being paired to the unconditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Stimulus

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Learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Response

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Psychologist, who wanted to see is Pavlov's conditioning worked on humans. Specifically, if fear can be conditioned. They experimented this theory on the 9 month baby, Albert. They showed Albert a rat. Then they showed Albert a rat with a loud sound. Albert cried due to the scary sound. Then, Albert became afraid of the rat due to paring the conditioning of the fear, of the sound, with the rat, which became the conditioned stimulus.

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Watson & Raynor

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Acquisition, Biopreparedness, Stimulus generalization, Stimulus discrimination, & Extinction

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Processes Involved in Classical Conditioning

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Learning the relationship between the two stimuli, of the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. It works best if the conditioned stimulus comes right before the unconditioned stimulus.

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Acquisition

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The idea that learning a relationship between two stimuli creates a stronger bond if timing is used accordingly. Where, a conditioned stimulus should come immediately before the unconditioned stimulus for the best results.

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Predictive Relationship of a Stimulus

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Something that is biologically predisposed to make particular associations. Ex: Like the common fear of snakes and spiders, which is do to our ancestral traits. We previously feared them in order to survive, and we have then passed down these traits.

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Biopreparedness

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Refers to our tendencies to avoid food prior to getting sick. This happens more commonly with novel foods. Its the theory that takes it only one association between food and an illness to avoid a certain type of food. This relates to bopreparedness and survival traits, because it shows that our ancestors avoided certain foods that they paired as dangerous. It is special type of classical conditioning, because it becomes fixed within our associations, even though it allows for large delay between the conditioned stimulus and the the unconditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Taste Aversion

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Food we are not familiar with.

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Novel Food

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The tendency to produce a conditioned response, to a stimuli that is similar to a conditioned stimulus. Ex: A dog salivating to the crinkling sound of his dog food as well Pavlov's bell.

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Stimulus Generalization

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The learnt behavior of NOT producing a conditioned response, to stimulus that does NOT signal unconditioned stimulus; Ex: the dog does not salivate to the sound of a phone ringing.

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Stimulus Discrimination

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The learning process that helps us adapt to changing environments. It is the learnt process of getting rid of a conditioned response, by repeatedly presenting a conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Ex: The dog will stop salivating to sound of the bell, if the owner repeatedly whistles before they feed their dog and stops using the bell.

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Extinction in Classical Conditioning

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The learning process of relating an individual's behavior to that behavior's consequences. Where a subject learns to engage in a behavior that leads to a positive consequence, and learns not to engage in a behavior that lead to a negative consequences. This process is voluntary.

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Operant Conditioning

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Shaping, Biological Predisposition, Stimulus Generalization, Discrimination Stimuli, Reinforcement,

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Processes involved in Operating Condtioning

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Classical conditioning is an involuntary learning process, where a subject has no consent in performing a behavior. While, operant conditioning is a voluntary learning process, where association is related to an organism's own behavior towards a stimulus.

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Classical Conditioning v.s Operant Conditioning

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A psychologist who was the founder of shaping. He experimented on rats by using a type of operant conditioning, that involved the shaping of rats' behavior. He invented an "operant box," that involved the gradual shaping of rats' behavior so they learned to press a lever and receive a food reward.

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B.F. Skinner

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The process of reinforcing gradual steps, or successive approximations, in order to create a desired behavior. It involves the uses of learnt complex processing; Ex: Skinner's rats gradually coming to the conclusion that pressing the lever means they will get fed.

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Shaping

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The idea, that influences operant conditioning, and states that it is easier to learn some behaviors in one individual rather than another. This is due to the differences in someone's biological makeup. Ex: How it's hard to train animal to avoid instinctual behaviors, like attacking a prey or marking its territory.

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Biological Predisposition

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The idea, that an organism's particular learnt behavior, will lead to the creation of another another behavior only in the presence of some stimuli, but not in the company of others. Ex: Someone who like to tell jokes, but his jokes are only laughed at while his friends are drunk. He learns to only say jokes when his friends are drunk.

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Stimulus Discrimination in Operant Conditioning

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Signal that a behavior will lead to particular consequence. Ex: The drunk friends who laugh at someone's jokes, only when they are drunk. Therefore, this stimulus creates the particular behavior that someone will not tell a joke until their friends are drunk.

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Discrimination Stimuli

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The idea that occurs when an organism behaves in the presence of the stimulus. Where this stimulus is similar to a previous stimulus that signaled reinforcement. This provides a way of deciding telling us which organisms are capable of understanding or perceiving. Ex: A pigeon getting food when they saw a certain painting. They discriminated that picasso's paintings gave them food and that monet's paintings did not. This generalized the learnt behavior that a painting that looks generally like picasso's gave them food.

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Stimulus Generalization in Operant Condtioning

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A learning process that is defined by the affect it has on behavior. Where it is only seen as this particular process, if it makes the behavior more likely to occur in the future.

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Reinforcement

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Type of reinforcement, that occurs something pleasant or good occurs as a result of a behavior. Ex: Getting rewards like food or getting paid.

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Positive Reinforcement

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Type of reinforcement, that occurs when something unpleasant, or bad, is taken away as a result of a behavior. It often involves the avoidance, or escape, of something bad. Ex: Turning off an annoying alarm to wake up, or repeatedly taking pain medication to when you feel pain.

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Negative Reinforcement

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The idea that timing is important for the process of reinforcement. Where the schedule of reinforcement should be based on either continuous or partial reinforcement. Ex: You should punish your dog during the act of trying to steal a treat, because it is better to enforce reinforcement immediately after a behavior, rather than waiting until you come home to punish, when your dog has already eaten all the treats.

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Delay of Reinforcement

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Reinforcement that helps us adapt to changing environments. It is used to get rid of conditioned responses, by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Reinforcing through this process does not mean that a conditioned response will stop immediately, but, it will go away through long periods of change. It also reinforces persistence. Last, in order to continue this process, their must be a shift from continuous reinforcement to partial reinforcement

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Extinction in Operant Condtioning

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The theory, that an organism going through extinction, will eventually learn to not be reinforced on every behavior.

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Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect

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The idea that organisms will learn faster through repeated reinforcement.

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Continuous Reinforcement

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The difference between these two learning processes, depends on the result of a process. Reinforcement, is seen as a more positive approach, and is usually created from a universal stimulus. And a punishment,, is seen as a more positive approach, and is usually created from a discriminative stimulus. But, people normally prefer to use negative reinforcement; like giving candy to a kid having a tantrum.

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Reinforcement vs. Punishment

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A learning process that is defined by the affect it has on behavior. Where it makes a behavior less likely to happen in the future. A common problem with this method, is that it may teach an attention to a discriminative stimulus. It works best through immediacy and consistency, and should be followed by an explanation.

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Punishment

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Someone learns to not do something in front of the punisher. It also doesn't specify a correct behavior, and a punisher may act as a discriminative stimulus. It may reinforcing an attention to a discriminative stimulus, rather than a specific behavior. It also may reinforce fear, anxiety, aggressive behavior like abuse.

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Problems with Punishment

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Adding something unpleasant following a behavior. Ex: Yelling, spanking, et cetera.

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Positive Punishment

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Removing something pleasant following a behavior. Ex: Removing privileges.

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Negative Punishment

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A learning process created through modeling, or from social learning. It is like a cognitive process, where through watching you imitate. The only organisms who have this ability to learn are humans and monkeys.

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Observational Learning

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An experiment, based on observational learning. It involved a group of kids who either watched, or did not watch, videos of adults beating up a Bobo doll. As a result of this viewing, the kids, who watched the video, imitated the adult's violence, and the kids, who didn't watch it, did not act violently.

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Bandura and the Bobo Doll Experiments

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Through correlational and experimental evidence, the kids who spend more time watching TV than they do in school, react more aggressively when provoked. This media violence directly affects behavior and attitudes, and desensitizes the effects of violence and crimes in children.

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Media Violence & Observational Learning

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The retention of information over time. This information is subjective, easily influenced, continually revised, and is influenced by beliefs or expectations.

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Memory

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Known as the man that remembers everything, due to his double photographic memory. He is able to read a page with one eye and a page with the other eye. He was born with brain abnormalities, which allow his brain to make usual connections, and can be shown through his creativity and humor with information. He has a genesis of the corpus callosum, and a larger brain. Inspired the movie "Rain Man."

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Kim Peek

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Encoding, Storage, & Retrieval

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Basic Memory Processes

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Getting information into memory. It involves automatic and effortful processing.

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Encoding

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Holding information in memory. It is where the information processing model or memory is embodied in sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

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Storage

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Finding information in memory and then applying it.

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Retrieval

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A type of encoding, where only some of the basic information such as space, time, sequence, and frequency, are encoded into memory. Also, there is no effort made to memorize such information.

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Automatic Processing

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A type of encoding, through the process of repetition and applied meaning.

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Effortful Processing

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Encoding information, involved in effortful processing, through the process of repetition. This type of encoding does not create lasting memory. Only things like phone numbers, and certain parts of sequences will tend to stick.

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Maintenance Rehearsal

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Theory to about how well someone remembers an item on a list. Where it depends on whether something is at the beginning, middle, or end. And that the items at the very beginning, and the ones at the very end, are remembered best. Although, after a duration of time, you tend to remember only the items at the beginning of a list. This is applied in encoding through maintenance rehearsal

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Serial Position Effect

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Idea that we better remember items from the beginning of a list. Part of the Serial Position Effect.

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Primacy Effect

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Idea that we better remember items from the end of a list. Part of the Serial Position Effect.

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Recency Effect

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Encoding information, involved in effortful processing, where through the process of thinking about the meaning of the concepts, that you are trying to remember. Where meaning is semantic, or logical. It involves a deeper level of processing than the process of encoding through repetition. This is because you are linking things to information to things you already know, which is embodied in the self-reference effect.

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Elaborative Rehearsal

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The idea that we are best able to remember information if we apply it to ourselves, where this information becomes personally relevant. This is applied in encoding through elaborative rehearsal.

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Self-Reference Effect

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The idea that we learn information better if learning and decoding is distributed through time.

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Spacing Effect

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The process of storing memory through three ways: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, Long-Term Memory.

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Information Processing Model of Memory

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Stored brief, identification memory. Which can be transferred to short term memory.

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Sensory Memory

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Stored working memory. Or a type of memory that can be manipulated. It includes the memory involved in solving problems, and the memory that holds social perception and conversion. This type of memory is limited by capacity and duration. And some of this information is transferred to long-term memory.

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Short-Term Memory (STM)

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Memory that serves as our mental chalkboard. It includes the memory that is involved in solving problems, and the memory that holds social perception and conversion.

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Working Memory or Mental Manipulation

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The theory that embodies the limited capacity of short-term memory. It states that the maximum number of items, that can be recalled perfectly after only one presentation, is the known as the Magic Number: 7 plus or minus 2.

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Immediate Memory Span

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Information in short-term memory only persist of about 18-30 seconds, unless you are actively using, thinking about it, or rehearsing it.

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Duration of Short-Term Memory

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Stored memory that has an unlimited capacity and a relatively permanent duration. This type of conscious and unconscious memory can also be characterized, as either explicit or implicit. Where explicit memory can be further broken down to episodic and semantic memory. And implicit memory can be broken down to procedural and priming memory.

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Long-Term Memory (LTM)

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Type of long-term, conscious memory, based on facts, and experiences that we know and and can state. This type of memory can be broken down to episodic and semantic memory.

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Explicit Memory

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Type of explicit memory, that stores personal experiences from life and other important events. Ex: Birthdays; Vacations.

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Episodic Memory

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Type of explicit memory, that stores impersonal facts or general knowledge of the world. Ex: Historical facts; State names.

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Semantic Memory

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Type of long-term memory, that is stored without conscious recollection. It typically involves the unconscious influence of past behavior and thinking. This type of memory can be broken down into procedural and priming memory. Also, this type of memory cannot be processed through short-term memory.

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Implicit Memory

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Type of implicit memory, that stores the information involved in knowing how to perform routine skills, or automatic tasks.

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Procedural Memory

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Type of implicit memory, that stores classical conditioning information.

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Priming Memory

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Little hints or cues that help us remember things. Where the information in our mind consists of a network of associations, and retrieving these hints activate the process of spreading information.

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Retrieval Cues

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The process of retrieving cues, which activate a the spreading information within our memory.

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Spreading Activation

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Environmental stimuli that allow for retrieval cues.

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Context-Dependent Memory

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Stimuli based on our internal state, that allow for retrieval cues.

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State-Dependent Memory

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Due to encoding failures within memory; Storage decay; & Retrieval Failure.

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Reasons for Forgetting

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The fading of unused memory.

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Storage Decay

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The idea that information is somewhere in your memory, but you just cannot access it. This is embodied through the idea, that only through the second time of learning information will you truly remember something. This shows that previously learned information is still in you brain, it is just not accessible due to the lack of the of associations your memory made about it.

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Retrieval Failure

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Forgetting is due to Decay and displacement

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Reason for Forgetting Short-Term-Memory

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Forgetting is due to retrieval failure.

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Reason for Forgetting Long-Term-Memory

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A man who would remember long lists of nonsense and test himself of what he remembers. He concluded, that forgetting slows down and levels off. This curve showed that he was more likely to remember things days or weeks later.

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Ebbinghaus & The Forgetting Curve

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Abstract mental frameworks that organize what we know and expect from various situations. It is also where expectation comes from, and develops overtime as we notice more common features. They are built upon previous experiences, and influence how we notice and remember things. Last, they are the things we typically remember the most.

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Schemas

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The theory that we mold information to fit into our schemas.

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Schema Theory

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An experiment, based on the schema theory, that hypothesized that most people are good at remembering the things that are typically in offices. They showed subjects office supplies and asked them to remember things about it. It concluded, that the people who falsely remember things seeing things, are the objects typically found in offices. And that the subjects who were less likely to remember things, used false memories within their schemas.

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Office Experiment

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The idea that misinformation influences our memory. This is due to our memories being easily distorted by questions and suggestions. This is a common issue in eyewitness testimonies.

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Misinformation Effect

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An experiment that asked subject to tell them the speed of how fast a car crash was going. It was asked in two ways: How fast the cars would going when they smashed each other? How fast the cars were going when they came in contact with each other? The one answered more accurately was the one pertaining to the word "smash." She concluded that this difference in data showed that it was due to the different wordings of the question. A week later, she invited back her subjects who gave a more dramatic view on the experiment. This experiment led to the idea that by visualizing and imagining events, people create false memories of things that never happened.

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Loftus Eyewitness Experiment

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Over-remembered memory that is usually not repressed.

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Traumatic Memory

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Memory that is created through confidence and vividness, which do not necessarily indicate accuracy.

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True & False Memories

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New synapses may be created and synthesized in order to create memories.

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Describe the biological bases of memory.

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Hippocampus, Frontal & Temporal Lobes, Cerebellum, Basal Ganglia

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Important Brain Structures to Memory

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Characterizes as the lack of memory of events before the age of three. This is due to the lack of long-term-memories, that have not been created yet.

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Infantile Amnesia

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Used to transfer short-term-memory to long-term-memory. It acts as a waiting room or bridge between short-term-memory and long-term-memory. It also handles explicit memory.

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Hippocampus's Involvement with Memory

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Stores long-term-memory, where different memories are created in different patterns of activation within this part of the brain

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Frontal & Temporal Lobes's Involvement with Memory

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Stores classical conditioning memories.

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Cerebellum's Involvement with Memory

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Stores procedural memories.

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Basal Ganglia's Involvement with Memory

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Involves generalized trauma to the prefrontal cortex, where it affects their implicit memory. Patients can't remember events prior to an injury, and generally can't remember parts of the past. Usually people recover their memory in the order from which it actually happened. And a loss of memory that occurs around the time of a loss of consciousness, is memory that cannot be transferred from short-term-memory to long-term-memory. Typically, episodic memory is more severely affected than semantic memory, so that the patient may remember words and general knowledge (such as who their country's leader is, how everyday objects work, colours, etc) but not specific events in their lives.

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Retrograde Amnesia

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Memory damage, caused by damage to the hippocampus. Where patients experience difficulty creating new explicit, long-term-memory. They typically can't remember new information from around 20-30 seconds, this is due to the inability to transfer memory from short-term-memory to long-term-memory. Also, patients usually only lose declarative/explicit memory, but they retain non-declarative or procedural memory. H.M. was a famous case of this brain damage, where he couldn't create explicit memory from around 20 seconds. His implicit memory was not altered, but he couldn't remember events after 1953.

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Anterograde Amnesia

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Manipulating and transforming information.

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Cognition

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Interests includes thinking, knowing, remembering, communicating.

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Cognitive Psychologist

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The idea that we tend to seek out information that confirms our beliefs, and leave out information that we think is wrong.

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Confirmation Bias

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The idea that we cling to our beliefs more if they are challenged. And if we cannot avoid the evidence that suggests our beliefs are wrong, we challenge that evidence. This is due to our overconfidence, where we commonly overestimate our accuracy from our strong belief system.

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Belief Perseverance

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Theory that's principled on the idea that ignorance creates confidence, and states that the people who lack knowledge and skill in an area tend to overestimate their knowledge and skill in that area. Also that that people who do have expertise in that area tend to underestimate their skill.

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Dunning-Kruger Effect

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Characterized by a blend of symbols, words, and characters.

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Language

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The first part of the first year stage in language development. Characterized by a baby's speech pattern, which consists of many discontinuous sounds that can be found in various languages all over the world. Where through time, the languages that are spoken in the infant's household drop out of their speech pattern. And that a baby actually becomes functionally deaf to those languages commonly spoken around them.

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Babbling

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The second part of the first year stage in language development. Where an infant will start using sounds to produce meaning, which is made up of one word at a time. Where an infant will be able to understand more words than they can actually produce.

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One-Word Stage

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Part of the second year stage in language development. Where an infant's speech is characterized by two word sentence formation. And that their sentence structure follows an overgeneralized sense of grammatical rules used in their households. Where, they usually use repetition to get to their point across.

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Telegraphic Speech

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Theory that we are biologically predisposed to acquire language. This theory is backed up by the fast rate of which we learn a language, and the idea that we acquire a language without reinforcement. Also by the critical/sensitive period in a child's development.

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Language Acquisition

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Part of the language acquisition theory. Defined by a window of time in a child's development, where particular forms of speech are used that an adult would not use. Where, if you are not exposed to a language before the age of 7, you not fully not able to acquire a language, and is completely closed off around the age of 13. Also, if you are not exposed to a language, or are deaf and were not exposed to sign language, between this time period, you will never fully understand a language.

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Critical or Sensitive Period

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Children who are not exposed to a language.

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Feral Children

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Thirteen year old girl who was raised with no human contact, other than her abusive father who beat her every time she tried to speak. When she was pulled out of her household she only was able to say her name and sorry. Scientists were interested if she could actually acquire a language. When she was tried to be taught a language she was never able to learn how to grammatically construct a language.

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Jeanie: The Feral Child

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Theory that language influences thinking, where expanding language may expand thinking. This is supported by the idea that we are better able to perceive, think about, and remember a language if we have words for them. Ex: We are better able to learn new colors if we have two or more words for them.

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Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

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The idea that acquiring different languages will influence the quality of our thought processes. Where we learning more than one language will advance our cognitive flexibility, creativity, and our attentional control on language skills. Ex: People who only speak one language will get different personality results than people who speak more than one.

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Billingualism

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Language that is used to manipulate reality, by making our perception of reality more powerful in order to influence power. Ex: "Liberate" translates to invading.S

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Doublespeak

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Language used to produce the thoughts of males.

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Masculine Generic

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They have cognitive abilities exceed expectations: Use tools, have customs, form concepts, etc. They produce use symbols to communicate. But, animals lack complex grammar that characterizes human language.

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How animals think and produce language.

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Failure to detect the unexpected.

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Inattentional Blindness

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Part of sleep where delta waves are found. Delta waves begin to slow down to transition to stage 4.

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Stage 3 of Sleep

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Slowest waves in the sleep cycle. Deepest part of sleep.

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Stage 4 of Sleep

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Part of sleep where spindles-rapid, rhythmic brain activity is found.

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Stage 2 of Sleep

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Falling into sleep-light sleep as brain waves begin to slow.

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Stage 1 of Sleep

Psych Chpt. 3, 7-9 – Flashcards

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