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Learning

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Relatively permanent change is behavior due to experience. In other words, the process by which humans acquire new behaviors.

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Classical Conditioning

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Learning to make a reflex response to to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex.

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Ivan Pavlov

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Russian physiologist, born in 1849-1936, and discovered classical conditioning.

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Ivan Pavlov researched led him to what?

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First was researching digestion by using dogs. He would record the amount of salivation (enzyme). Noticed that dogs would also salivate in response to the light before even serving food.

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Unconditioned (UCS)

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Reflex, NO LEARNING.

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Conditioned (CR)

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(Conditioning) LEARNING, associates formed.

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Acquisition

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Repeated pairing of the NS and the UCS; the organism is in the process of acquiring learning.

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Classical Condition Concepts

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1.) CS is usually some stimulus that is distinctive or stands out from other competing stimuli. 2.) Stimulus Generalization 3.) Stimulus Discrimination 4.) Extinction

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Stimulus Generalization

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Tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response.

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Stimulus Discrimination

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Tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

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Extinction

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Disappearance or wearing of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (In classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforces (in operant conditioning).

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Spontaneous Recovery

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Reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior.

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Conditioned Response

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The result when you associate an object with an unconditioned stimulus.

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High-Ordered Conditioning

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(Step 1) - Occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus (Step 2)- to become a 2nd conditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)

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Emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli. Example: The Case Study of "Little Albert" in the 1900's. May lead to phobias.

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Vicarious Conditioning

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Classical condition by simply watching someone else respond to a stimulus.Used a lot in advertisement companies.

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Conditioned Taste Aversion

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Development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring after only one association.

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Biological Preparedness

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Tendency to learn certain associations with only 1 or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning.

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Cognitive Perspective

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Modern theory in which classical conditioning is seen to occur because the conditioned stimulus provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the unconditional stimulus.

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Operant Conditioning

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Voluntary behavior learned through consequences. Either pleasant or unpleasant. (Skinner)

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Operant

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Any behavior that is voluntary.

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Thorndike's Law of Effect

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Responses followed by pleasurable consequences are repeated. If it is not unpleasant its not repeated. (His work proceeded Skinner).

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B.F. Skinner

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1.) Born 1904-1990. 2.) Was a Behaviorist. 3.) Studied observable measurable behavior. 4.) Gave "Operant Conditioning" its name 5.) Learning depends on what happens after the response: the consequence.

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Reinforcement

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Any consequence that makes a response more likely.

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2 Types of Reinforcers

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1.) Primary 2.) Secondary

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Primary Reinforcer

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Reinforcer that satisfies a basic biological need or drive. ( hunger, thirst, touch).

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Secondary Reinforcer

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Reinforcing via pairing with a primary reinforcer. such as praise, tokens, or gold stars.

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Positive Reinforcement

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Addition of a pleasurable stimulus. (Giving a dog a treat).

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Negative Reinforcement (Not a BAD thing, just taking AWAY).

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Removal, escape, or avoidance of a unpleasant stimulus. Example: Taking aspirin for a headache is negatively reinforced: removal of the headache.

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Partial Reinforcement Effect

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A response that is reinforced after some -but not all - correct responses tends to be very resistant to extinction.

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Continuous Reinforcement

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Reinforcement of each and every correct responce

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Schedules of Reinforcement: Key Terms

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1.) Fixed 2.) Interval 3.) Ratio 4.) Variable

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Fixed

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Set number or time interval, doesn't vary. (Unchanging).

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Interval

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Involves a period of time. (Time interval).

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Ratio

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Involves a number of responses. (Actions).

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Variable

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Changeable number of time period. (Changes).

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Fixed Ratio (FR)

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Number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same.

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Variable Ratio (VR)

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Number of responses required varies for each event. Rapid rate without pauses.

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Fixed Interval (FI)

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Always same time before reinforcement opportunity. Long pauses after reinforcement. Example: Getting a paycheck every month.

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Variable Interval (VI)

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Reinforcement possibilities after varying amounts of time. Slower, steady, rate without pauses. Example: Fishing or texting waiting on something you are expecting.

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Punishment

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Any consequence that makes a response less frequently. Opposite of reinforcement.

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Drawbacks of Severe Punishment

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1.) Creates FEAR & ANXIETY. 2.) May encourage LYING to avoid punishment. 3.) May cause AVOIDANCE of the punisher instead of the behavior being punished. 4.) MODELING OF AGGRESSION

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Making Punishment More Effective

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1.) Immediate - As soon as possible. 2.) Consistent - If they commit the same behavior or disobedience they should always get punished. 3.) Paired with Reinforcement to correct the right behavior.

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Shaping

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Reinforcement of simple steps leading to a desired complex behavior.

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Successive Approximation

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Small steps, one after another, that lead to a particular goal behavior.

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Extinction Behavior

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Involves the elimination of a response from learners repertory through non-reinforcement. Occurs if the behavior (response) is not reinforced. Example: One way to deal with a child's temper tantrum is to ignore it;lack of reinforcement for the tantrum behavior will eventually result in extinction.

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Generalization

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Involves performing some response to a slightly different stimulus. Example: The dog is showed to bark when the piano key is struck. Similar sounds make the dog bark as well.

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Instinctive Drift

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Animals conditioned behavior reverts to genetic patterns. Instinctive behavior in animals is resistant to conditioning or modification. Example: Raccoon washing their food and Pigs rooting. (digging with their snouts).

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Behavior Modification

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The use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about the desired behavior.

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Token Economy

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Type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens.

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Biofeedback

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Use of feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses such as blood pressure and relaxation under voluntary control.

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Neurofeedback

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Relatively a newer biofeedback. Provides feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior.

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Cognitive Learning Theory

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"black box" = inside the mind. Focused on observable behavior during the 1950's & 1960's. Introduced by Edward Tolman

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Edward Tolman

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Early Cognitive Scientist. Believed that animals could learn about their environment that they could later use in a flexible manner to solve problems. Animals, formed a "cognitive map" to use when roaming their environments. Thought animals could learn without the need of reinforcement: Latent Content. Known for his experiment with 3 groups of rats in a maze.

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Latent Content

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Learning that remains hidden until its application is useful.

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Insight Learning

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The sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly. Also referred as "Aha" learning. Discovered by Wolfgang Kohler while studying chimpanzees. Chimpanzees are trial-and-error learners. Cannot be gained through trial-and-error learning alone.

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Learned Helplessness

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Tendency to fail to act to escape from a aversion situation because of a history of repeated failures. Began in 1967 and eventually lead to a theoretical explanation of depression. Marlin Seligman proposed this from her experiment of stubborn dogs.

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Observational Learning

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Learning by watching a model behave. Involves concept of vicarious reinforcement. "Bobo Doll" experiment by Albert Bandura. Showed a clip to kids of adults beating a punch bag shaped as a clown and demonstrated the same results.

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Learning/Performance Distinction

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Learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior.

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4 Elements of Observational Learning Proposed by Albert Bandura

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Attention, Memory, Imitation, and Desire/Motivation. *Use acronym A.M.I.D. to remember.

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