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Cognition

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The area within psychology that examines how we acquire, store, transform, and use knowledge.

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1960s

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New research in areas such as memory and language produced disenchantment with behaviorism, and the cognitive approach gained popularity in what time period?

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Cognitive psychology is also influenced by research in what field?

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Artificial Intelligence

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metacognition

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Knowledge and control of cognitive processes; helps to supervise the way one selects and uses memory strategies.

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Cognitive psychology

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(1) A synonym for cognition. (2)The theoretical approach to psychology that focuses on studying people's thought processes and knowledge.

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Cognitive approach

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A theoretical orientation that emphasizes people's thought processes and their knowledge.

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empirical evidence

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Scientific evidence obtained by careful observation and experimentation.

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Introspection

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An early approach to studying mental activity, in which carefully trained observers systematically analyzed their own sensations and reported them as objectively as possible, under standardized conditions.

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Recency Affect

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A tendency for items at the end of a list to be recalled better than items in the middle of the list.

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Behaviorism

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An approach to psychology that focuses on objective, observable reactions to stimuli in the environment.

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Operational definition

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In psychological research, a precise definition that specifies exactly how researchers will measure a concept.

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gestalt psychology

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The theoretical approach emphasizing that: (1) humans actively organize what they see; (2) they see patterns; and (3) the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

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gestalt

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In perception and problem solving, an overall quality that transcends the individual elements n the stimulus.

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Information-processing approach

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A theory of cognition proposing that (1) mental processes are similar to the operations of a computer and (2) information progresses through the cognitive system in a series of stages, one step at a time.

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Atkinson-Shiffrin model

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The proposal that memory involves a sequence of separate steps; in each step information is transferred from one storage area to another.

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Sensory memory

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The large-capacity storage system that records information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy.

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Short-term memory

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The part of the memory that holds only the small amount of information that a person is actively using. The more current term for this type of memory is working memory.

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Working memory

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The brief, immediate memory for the limited amount of material that a person is currently processing. Part of this also actively coordinates on going mental activities. In the more current research, this term is more popular than a similar but older term, short-term memory.

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Long-term memory

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The larger-capacity memory for experiences and information accumulated throughout one's lifetime. Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed that information stored in long-term memory is relatively permanent and not likely to be lost.

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Ecological validity

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A principle of research design in which the research uses conditions that are similar to the natural setting where the results will be applied.

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Cognitive neuroscience

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An approach to studying mental activity that uses the research techniques of cognitive psychology, along with various neuroscience techniques for assessing the structure and function of the brain.

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Social cognitive neuroscience

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A new discipline that uses neuroscience techniques to explore the kind of cognitive processes used in interactions with other people.

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Brain lesions

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Specific brain damage caused by strokes, tumors, blows to the head, accidents, or other traumas.

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Positron emission tomography

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(PET scan) A procedure for measuring blood flow in the brain by injecting the participant with a radioactive chemical, just before this person performs a cognitive task. A special camera makes an image of this accumulated radioactive chemical in the regions of the brain active during the task.

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functional magnetic resonance imaging

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(fMRI) A method of measuring brain activity, based on the principle that oxygen-rich blood is an index of brain activity. A magnetic field produces changes in the oxygen atoms in the brain while a person performs a cognitive task. A scanning device takes a "photo" of the changes.

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Event-related potential technique

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A procedure for recording the very brief, small fluctuations in the brain's electrical activity in response to a stimulus such as an auditory tone.

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Artificial intelligence

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A branch of computer science that explores human cognitive processes by creating computer models. These models demonstrate "intelligent behavior" and also accomplish the same tasks that humans do.

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Computer metaphor

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A way of describing cognition as a complex, multipurpose machine that processes information quickly and accurately.

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pure AI

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An approach that designs a computer program to accomplish a cognitive task as efficiently as possible, even if the computer's processes are completely different from the processes used by humans.

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Computer simulation

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Programming a computer to perform a specific cognitive task in the same way that humans actually perform this task. Also called computer modeling.

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Computer Modeling

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Programming a computer to perform a specific cognitive task in the same way that humans actually perform the task. Also called computer simulation.

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Connectionist approach

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A theory describing cognitive processing in terms of networks that link together neuron-like units. These networks perform operations simultaneously and in parallel, rather than one step at a time. Also known as the parallel distributed processing approach (PDP) and the neural-network approach.

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Parallel distributed processing approach

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A theory describing cognitive processing in terms of networks that link together neuron-like units. These networks perform operations simultaneously and in parallel, rather than one step at a time. Also known as the connectionist approach and the neural-network approach.

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neural-networking approach

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A theory describing cognitive processing in terms of networks that link together neuron-like units. These networks perform operations simultaneously and in parallel, rather than one step at a time. Also known as the connectionist approach and the parallel distributed processing approach.

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cerebral cortex

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The outer layer of the brain that is essential for cognitive process.

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serial processing

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A type of cognitive processing in which a person performs operations one item at a time, rather than simultaneously, in contrast to parallel processing.

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parallel processing

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A type of cognitive processing in which a person performs many operations simultaneously, in contrast to serial processing.

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Cognitive science

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an interdisciplinary field that tries to answer questions about the mind. This includes cognitive psychology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, sociology, and economics.

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consciousness

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A person's awareness of the external world and of his or her own perceptions, images, thoughts, memories, and feelings.

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memory

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The process of maintaining information over time.

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imagery

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The mental representation of stimuli when those stimuli are not physically present. Sensory receptors do not receive any input when a mental image is created.

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semantic memory

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A person's organized knowledge about the world, including knowledge about words, and other factual information.

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schema

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Generalized, well-integrated knowledge about a situation, an event, or a person. These allow people to predict what will happen in a new situation. These predictions are usually correct.

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discourse

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Interrelated units of language that are longer than a sentence.

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Theme 1

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The cognitive processes are active, rather than passive.

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Theme 2

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The cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate.

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Theme 3

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The cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information.

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Theme 4

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The cognitive processes are interrelated with on another; they do not operate in isolation.

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Theme 5

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Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing.

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bottom-up processing

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The kind of cognitive processing that emphasizes stimulus characteristics in object recognition and other cognitive tasks. For example, the physical stimuli from the environment are registered on the sensory receptors. This information is then passed on to higher, more sophisticated levels in the cognitive system.

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top-down processing

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The kind of cognitive processing that emphasizes the importance of concepts, expectations, and memory in object recognition and other cognitive tasks.

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individual differences

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Systematic variation in the way that groups of people perform on the same cognitive task.

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major depression

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A psychological disorder characterized by feeling sad, discouraged, and hopeless; fatigue and lack of interest in leisure activities are also common. This disorder can interfere with the ability to perform daily cognitive and physical tasks.

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unconscious emotion

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What does the psychodynamic approach focus on?

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emphasizes our observable behaviors.

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What does the behaviorist approach focus on?

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clinical, educational, and social

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Which areas of psychology does the cognitive approach widely influence?

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60

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The contemporary version of cognitive psychology has emerged within the last ____ years.

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Aristotle

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The Greek philosopher ______ (384-322 BCE) examined topics such as perception, memory, and mental imagery. He also discussed how humans acquire knowledge through experience and observation.

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Wundt

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Many scholars believe that he should be considered the founder of psychology, lived in Leipzig, Germany, between 1832 and 1920, proposed that psychology should study mental processes using a technique called introspection.

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Ebbinghaus

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First person to scientifically study human memory, examined a variety of factors that might influence performance, such as the amount of time between two presentations of a list of items.

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Calkins

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Reported a memory phenomenon called the recency effect, emphasized that psychologists should study how real people use their cognitive processes in the real world, as opposed to the psychology laboratory, also the first woman to be president of the American Psychology Association. During her career she published four books and over 100 scholarly papers.

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James

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Theorized about our everyday psychological experiences. He is best known for his textbook "Principles of Psychology", published in 1890, which provides clear, detailed descriptions about people's everyday experiences.

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Watson

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The most prominent early behaviorist was the U.S. psychologist __________, who lived from1878-1958. He and other behaviorist emphasized observable behavior, and typically studied animals.

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Behaviorists

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_______ argued that researchers could not objectively study mental representations, such as an image, idea, or thought. They also emphasized the importance of operational definition.

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Gestalt

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_______ psychologists valued the unity of psychological phenomena, and constructed a number of laws that explain why certain components of a pattern seem to belong together.

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Bartlett

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A British psychologist who conducted his research on human memory. His book "Remembering: An Experimental and Social Study" is considered one of the most influential books in the history of cognitive psychology. He rejected the carefully controlled research of Ebbinghaus. He proposed that human memory is an active, constructive process, in which we interpret and transform the information we encounter.

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1956

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When was the "birth" of cognitive psychology?

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behaviorist

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The ______ approach tells us nothing about numerous psychologically interesting processes, such as the thoughts and strategies that people use when they try to solve problems

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Chomsky

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New developments in linguistics increased psychologists' dissatisfaction in behaviorism. The most important contributions came from the linguist ________, who emphasized that the structure of language was too complex to be explained in behaviorist terms. He and other linguists argued that humans have an inborn ability to master all the complicated and varied aspects of language.

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Piaget

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A Swiss theorist who lived from 1896 to 1980 who researched children's thought processes. According to his books, children actively explore their world in order to understand important concepts. Children's cognitive strategies change as they mature, and adolescents often use sophisticated strategies in order to conduct experiments about scientific principles.

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Linguistics, memory, and developmental

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The growth of the cognitive approach was encouraged by research in what fields of psychology?

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Atkinson and Shiffrin

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______ and _______ developed an information-processing model that became extremely popular within the emerging field of cognitive psychology that proposed that memory involves a sequence of separate steps; in each step, information is transferred from one storage area to another.

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acquisition, storage, transformation, and knowledge.

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The term cognition refers to the ______, ______, _______, and use of _______.

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theoretical approach

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Cognitive psychology is sometimes used as a synonym for cognition, and sometimes it refers to a _______ _______ to psychology

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Ebbinghaus, Calkins

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_______ and ______ conducted early research on human memory.

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James

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________ Examined numerous everyday psychological processes, and he emphasized the active nature of the human mind.

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Watson

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Beginning in the 20th century, behaviorist such as ______ rejected the study of mental processes; the behaviorists helped to develop the research methods used bu current cognitive psychologists.

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Gestalt

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______ psychology emphasized that people use organization to perceive patterns, and they often solve problems by using insight

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Bartlett

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______ conducted memory research using long stories and other meaningful material.

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cognitive neuroscience

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The area of ________ ________ combines the research techniques of cognitive psychology with a variety of methods for assessing the brain's structure and function

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brain lessons

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A ______ ______ refers to an area of the brain that has been destroyed bu strokes and other forms of damages; it is often difficult to interpret the relationship between these and cognitive deficits.

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