Learning and Behavior Exam number 1 – Flashcards
Unlock all answers in this set
Unlock answersquestion
chapter 1
answer
...
question
Behavior
answer
: is any activity of an organism that can be observed or somehow measured. The activity may be internal or external and may or may not be visible to others.
question
Learning
answer
Is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from some type of experience. EX: EX: reading this textbook is an example of behavior and any lasting change in behavior as a result of reading this text is learning • The change in behavior does not have to be immediate, and in some circumstances the change might not become evident until long after the experience
question
Two fundamental process of learning:
answer
Classical and operant conditioning
question
1. Classical conditioning:
answer
aka pavlovian or respondent conditioning, Is the process by which certain inborn behaviors come to be produced in new situations. The behavior involved are regarded as reflexive or involuntary, such as sneezing in response to dust or salivating in response to food. These behavior are elicited in new situations eX: Bell: Food Salivation= The bell is presented just before the food, and the food in turn causes salivation Bell Salivation= the presentation of the bell itself now causes the dog to salivate because the bell was previously paired with the food. Classical conditioning underlies many of our 1. emotional response and contributes to the development of our likes and dislikes. It can even lead to the development of debilitating fears and powerful feelings of sexual attraction
question
2. Operant conditioning:
answer
involves the strengthening or weakening of a behavior as a result of its consequences. The behaviors are goal-directed or voluntary in nature. EX: rat learn to press a lever (the behavior) to obtain food (the consequence), the effect of which is an increase in the rat's tendency to press the lever eX: speaking with a loud voice in a noisy environment so that others will be able to hear you Lever Press Food pellet The effect: Likelihood of lever pressing increases The consequences of the behavior (the food pellet) has served to strengthen future occurrences of that behavior. The consequence can be immediate or delayed. The effect of delayed consequences on behavior can involve certain complexities. Because of its importance for humans, operant conditioning is the type of learning most strongly emphasized.
question
Observational learning:
answer
the act of observing someone else's behavior facilitates the development of similar behavior in oneself. When you observe someone's behavior, you will adapt that behavior
question
Fixed action patterns:
answer
The effect of inherited dispositions in either facilitating or inhibiting (stop) certain types of learning. The term A:B means that event A is followed by event B, and the term X Y means that event X produces event Y Quiz on page 5
question
Historical Background
answer
...
question
1. Aristotle: Empiricism and the Laws of Association:
answer
It is impossible to outline all of the historical events that have contributed to the modern-day study of learning and behavior 1. Aristotle was A Greek philosopher who lived between 384 and 322 B.C. 2. His teacher Plato believed that everything we know is inborn (residing in our soul). Learning is simply a process of inner reflection to uncover the knowledge that already exists within= nature (nativist) Aristotle disagreed and argued that knowledge is not inborn but istead is acquired through experience= Nuture Nativist(nature)= assumes that a person's abilities and tendencies are largely inborn. Emphasizes the role of heredity Empiricist (nuture)= assumes that a person's abilities and tendencies are mostly learned. Emphasizes the role of learning Aristotle believed that ideas are connected or associated with each other via four laws of association
question
via four laws of association
answer
1. The law of similarity 2. The law of contrast 3. The law of contiguity 4. The Law of frequency
question
1. The law of similarity:
answer
events that are similar to each other are readily associated with each other eX: car and truck are called automobiles because they are similar in appearance (have wheels, doors, headlights etc.) and carry passengers. EX: animals that have fur, four legs, a tail, and can bark are quickly perceived as belonging to the same species
question
2. The law of contrast
answer
Events that are opposite from each other are readily associated. EX: we associate black with white, short with tall etc EX: Full is associated to empty
question
3. The law of contiguity
answer
Events that occur in close proximity to each other in time or space are readily associated (contiguity= closeness) EX: A child quickly learns to associate thunder with lighting because the sound of thunder soon follows the flash of lighting EX: seeing snakes in a garage will make someone with snake phobia nervous when he or she is in the garage. (this is also an example of classical conditioning)
question
4. The Law of frequency:
answer
The more frequently two items occur together, the more strongly they are associated. EX: You associate a friend with a certain perfume the more frequently you smell that perfume EX: Practicing a move many time is the more you will use that move The laws of contiguity and frequency are still considered important aspects of learning quiz on page 7
question
2. Descartes: Mind-Body Dualism and the Reflex
answer
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) wrote the famous line "I think, therefore I am" 1. In his time people believed that human behavior was governed entirely by free will or reason Dualistic model of human nature: 1. Descartes claimed that we have a body that functions like a machine and produces involuntary, reflexive behaviors in response to external stimulation (such as sneezing in response to dust). (classical conditioning) 2. We have mind that has free will and produces behaviors that we regard as voluntary or goal directed (such as choosing what to eat for dinner). (Operant conditioning)
question
Mind-body dualism:
answer
proposes that some human behaviors are reflexes that are automatically elicited by external stimulation, while other behaviors are freely chosen and controlled by the mind. Only humans possess such a self-directing mind, while the behavior of nonhuman animals is entirely reflexive. Descartes' dualistic view of human nature suggested that 1. at least some behaviors—namely, reflexive behaviors—are mechanistic and could therefore be scientifically investigated. 2. It also suggested that the study of animal behavior might yield useful information about the reflexive aspects of human behavior Descartes believed that human mind had free will and assumed that some of the ideas contained within it are inborn
question
3. The British Empiricists
answer
Maintained that almost all knowledge is a function of experience John Locke (1632-1704) proposed that a newborn's mind is a black slate ( tabula rasa) upon which environmental experiences are written—an empiricist concept that had earlier been promoted by Aristotle The conscious mind is composed of a finite set of basic elements (specific colors, sounds, smells, etc) that are combined through the principles of association into complex sensations and thought patterns= all physical matter consists of various combinations of basic elements. Believed the mind is composed of a finite set of basic element that are then combined through the principles of association to form our conscious experiences quiz on page 9
question
4. Structuralism: The Experimental Study of Human consciousness
answer
The British empiricists did not conduct any experiments to test their notion that the mind consists of various combinations of basic elements; Their conclusions were instead based upon logical reasoning and the subjective examination of their conscious experience' William Wundt (1842-1910) proposed using the scientific method to prove that the mind is composed of basic elements connected to law of association and his idea was promoted by Edward Titchener
question
Structuralism:
answer
Edward Titchener was: assumes that it is possible to determine the structure of the mind by identifying the basic elements that compose it. Structuralists made great use of the method of introspection:
question
method of introspection
answer
: the subject in an experiment attemots to accurately describe his or her conscious thoughts, emotions, and sensory experiences. 1. Its emphasized on systematic observation 2. helped establish psychology as scientific discipline. 2. Its extreme emphasis on conscious experience as the proper subject matter for psychology resulted in a great deal of frustration and dissatisfaction—which laid the groundwork for the later establishment of a more objective approach to psychology, known as behaviorism The behaviorist did not agree with the method of introspection
question
5. Functionalism: The study of the Adaptive Mind
answer
William James (1842-1910) often regarded as the founder of American psychology, helped establish the approach to psychology known as functionalism.
question
Functionalism:
answer
assumes that the mind evolved to help us adapt to the world around us and that the focus of psychology should be the study of those adaptive processes. Functionalism: were focused in the basic process of learning This is taken from Darwin's theory of evolution 1. They see animal research as relevant to the study of human behavior in that humans were assumed to have evolved in similar way to other animals 2. They were similar to the structuralists in that they still emphasized the study of conscious experience and in doing so often used the method of introspection 3. William James was a functionalist Functionalist focus more on the adaptive process of the mind, Whereas structuralist focused more on the structure of the mind. quiz on page 10
question
Darwin's theory of evolution
answer
1. adaptive characteristics that enable a species to survive and reproduce tend to increase in frequency across generations while nonadpative characteristics tend to die out. 2. Characteristics that are highly typical of a species, such as the characteristic of consciousness in humans must have some type of adaptive value. 2. Based on this value functionalist believe that psychologists should not study the structure of the mind, but instead study the adaptive significance of the mind. 3. They believe that humans evolved in the same manner as other animals and that much of that we learn from studying other animals might therefore be of direct relevance to humans .
question
6. The Theory of Evolution: Humans as Animals
answer
The theory of evolution had a profound influence on the development of behaviorism. Charles Darwin wrote the book " On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" AKA Origin of Species= It described how species, including humans, change across generations in response to environmental pressures.
question
o Natural selection:
answer
is the concept that individual or species that are capable of adapting to environmental pressures are more likely to reproduce and pass along their adaptive characteristics than those that cannot adapt
question
Three components to the principle of natural selection
answer
1. Traits vary, both within a species (some dogs are larger than others) and between species (humans have slower metabolism than hummingbirds). 2. Many traits are heritable= they have genetic basis and can be inherited by off0spring 3. Organism must compete for limited resources ( being an effective competitor might sometimes involve cooperation as much as conflict)
question
Some individuals will acquire more The survival of the fittest
answer
resources than others based on certain, inherited traits that give them an advantage. These individuals are better to survive. This is called the survival of the fittest. The real driving force behind evolution is not survival of the fittest, but the reproductive advantage that accrues to those individuals possessing traits that are best suited to the environment. Successful individuals are more likely to have offspring who, when they inherit the successful traits from their parents, are also more likely to survive and have offspring. To say that a trait is heritable means that it has a genetic basis and can be inherited by offspring
question
Evolutionary adaption:
answer
A trait that evolves as a result of natural selection. Adaption can also be behaviors EX: if you place your hand over a flame, a flexion reflex will cause you automatically to pull your hand away from the damaging fire even before you consciously feel pain. A particularly important evolutionary adaption is the ability to learn. The ability to learn evolved because it conferred between nature and nuture can be seen as highly simplistic, since the ability to learn (nuture) is itself inherited (nature). These cross-species variations suggest that the ancestors of these species faced different environmental pressures, which in turn resulted in the evolution of differences in learning ability. The real driving force behind evolution is not the survival of the fittest, but rather the reproductive advantage help by those individuals who possess adaptive traits quiz on page 12
question
Behaviorism: The Study of Observable Behavior
answer
Watson: A major difficulty, Watson believed was the study of conscious experience, especially as promoted by the structuralists. because 1. The method of introspection was proving to be highly unreliable because Researchers frequently failed to replicate each other's findings. 2. We are unable to directly observe another person's thoughts and feelings. 3. We therefore have to make an inference that the person's verbal reports about those thoughts and feelings are accurate. The notion that the proper subject matter of psychology was the study of consciousness was so strongly entrenched that it affected even those who studied animal behavior. Solution: Watson reasoned that the only solution to this dilemma was to make psychology a purely objective science (like chemistry, physics, and biology) based solely on the study of directly observable behavior and the environmental events that surround it. • Ideas must be evaluated on the basis of careful logic and results from scientific investigations • VS. WHAT? • Falsifiable/Testable • = supposition or guess based on logical deduction rather than on observation Inferences about unconscious process are even more problematic than inferences about conscious process, because not even the person in whom the unconscious process exists is able to directly observe it. 2. By objectifying psychology, Watson hoped that psychology could then join the ranks of the natural sciences= biology, chemistry, and physics---which had traditionally emphasized the study of observable phenomena The theoretical goal of psychology is the prediction and control of behavior
question
inferences
answer
Supposition or guess based on logical deduction rather than direct observation A basic problem about relying on someone's report about his or her thoughts and feelings is that we are making an inference that the person is accurate
question
Behaviorism:
answer
Is a natural science approach to psychology that focuses on the study of environmental influences on observable behavior. Watson believed that the principles governing the behavior of nonhuman species might also be relevant to the behavior of humans. Traditional behavioral research is often conducted using nonhuman animals, primarily rats and pigeons. The results obtained are applied to human behavior Behavioral psychology is related to the law of parsimony=
question
law of parsimony=
answer
which proposes that simpler explanations for a phenomenon are generally preferable to more complex explanations. Versions of the law of parsimony:
question
1. Morgan's canon (canon=principles)=
answer
Morgan argued that whenever possible, one should interpret an animal's behavior in terms of lower, more primitive processes (ex: reflex or habit) rather than higher, more mentalistic process (decision or imagination). It is preferable to interpret animal behavior in terms of lower, more primitive processes, such as reflex or habit, than higher, more mentalistic processes such as reasonin 2. Watson argued that psychologists should avoid interpreting even human behavior in terms of mentalistic processes. Watson's arguments were the most clearly stated and therefore had a strong effect. All this Watson wrote them in this book called the Behaviorist Manifesto
question
John B Watson: Behaviorism's controversial Founder:
answer
Watson was forced to resign from his University position because he had a romantic relationship with his graduate student As a New York advertising firm, he attempted to promote a more scientific approach to the disciple of advertising—though the extent to which he had any significant influence on the industry Is questionable Like a pop psychologists, some of his advice was based more on personal opinion than on well-established principles. He had an underlying fear of emotions, as though fearful of losing control. He had many affairs throughout his life 1. Watson noted that a major problem with the method of introspection was that the results obtained were often unreliable. 2. A basic problem with relying on someone's report about his or her thoughts and feelings is that we are making an inference that the report is accurate. This term is defined as supposition or guess on logical deduction rather than direct observation 3. The notion that the proper subject of matter of psychology should be the study of consciousness was so strong that even those studied animal behavior felt compelled to make inferences about possible mental processes in their subjects 4. Watson argued that psychology needed to become a natural science (like biology, chemistry, and physics) based solely on the study of directly observable events.
question
Five Schools of Behaviorism:
answer
1. Watson's Methodological Behaviorism 2. Hull's Neobehaviorism 3. Tolman's cognitive Behaviorism 4. Bandura's social Learning Theory 5. Skinner's radical Behaviorism
question
1. Watson's Methodological Behaviorism
answer
Watson believed that psychologists should study 1. only publicly observable behavior. 2. All reference to internal events= events that can only be subjectively perceived such as our inner thoughts and feelings or that are assumed to exist on an unconscious level (ex: mather's unconscious hatred of her unwanted child) were to be stricken from scientific analysis ( All unconscious thoughts, feelings etc... should be completely taken out from scientific analysis) 3. In the methodological behaviorism, internal events such as consciously perceived thoughts and feelings and unconscious drives and motives are excluded from the analysis of behavior. 4. Instead, one studies the direct relationship between changes in the enviornment and changes in observable behavior. We should only study the effect of direct observation of the environment on direct observable behavior
question
Methodological behaviorism:
answer
asserts that, for methodological reasons, 1. psychologists should study only those behaviors that can be directly observed. 2. Watson hypothesized that thinking involves minute movements of the vocal cords in the larynx—and he enjoyed goading his critics by referring to his own thoughts as laryngeal activity. Laryngeal activity is not a reliable measure of thinking. Watson's behavioristic proposal to ignore thoughts and feeling in scientific analysis was not simply an attempt to dehumanize people or to pretend that thoughts and feelings do not exist, but rather it was in part a logical response to a crisis. 3. If the disciple of psychology was to survive, it would need to break free from the extreme mentalism of the time and adopt a much different perspective Second from here is ( Watson proposed that we should use the scientific methods to study the effect of direct observable environment on direct observable behavior. But he did not emphasis on how we can study unobservable behavior) 4. Watson's view of learning was mechanistic. Based on classical conditioning view, Watson believed that all behaviors in both animal and human is reflexive. 5. He believed that learning involves the developments of a simple connection between an environmental event (the stimulus) and a specific behavior (the response). Watson's theory of learning Is called S-R theory
question
S-R theory:
answer
learning is believed to involve the establishment of a connection between a specific stimulus (S) and a specific response (R). Complex behavior presumed to involve extremely long chains of these S-R connections This is called social interaction R--S--R--S
question
Watson was one of the first individuals
answer
1. to systematically study inborn behavior patterns in animals. 2. He concluded that humans inherit only a few fundamental reflexes along with three basic emotions ( love, rage, and fear) The supposition that a person's abilities are largely inherited has been strongly promoted throughout history ( and has been often used to justify acts of discriminations and racism) Watson was one of the first to issue a strong challenge to this assumption, arguing instead that there is at least as much evidence suggesting that human abilities are mostly learned Behavioristic assumption are just assumptions. They do not necessarily reflect some type of absolute truth, nor do they necessarily reflect the private beliefs of the scientist. One can adopt these assumptions as a useful way of looking at behavior without abandoning other assumptions, such as certain religious beliefs about the existence of free will Expert performers in almost all fields of endeavor, ranging from music to athletics to chess, require a minimum of 10 years of intensive training achieving a high level of performance Questions: see page 19
question
2. Hull's Neobehaviorism
answer
1. Clark Hull claimed that Watson's rejection of unobservable events was scientifically unsound. 2. He noted that both physicists and chemists make inferences about events that have never been directly observed but that can nevertheless be operationalized (defined in such a way that they can be measured directly or observable). EX: gravity cannot be observed, but it effect on fallen objects can be measured. 3. Hull believed that it might be useful for psychologists to infer the existence of internal events that might mediate (draw a connections) between the environment and behavior
question
intervening variables
answer
3. Hull believed that it might be useful for psychologists to infer the existence of internal events that might mediate (draw a connections) between the environment and behavior EX: hunger drive can be operationalized as number of hours of food deprivation. This is an example of intervening variables= they intervene between a cause (such as food depreciation) and an effect ( such as speed of running toward food)
question
In Hull's neobehaviorism
answer
, theorists make use of intervening variables, in the form of hypothesized physiological processes, to help explain the relationship between the environment and behavior
question
Neobehavorism=
answer
is a brand of behaviorism that utilizes intervening variables, in the form of hypothesized physiological processes, to help explain behavior Hull strongly opposed the use of introspection as a scientific tool, believing that subjective experiences are too vague and unreliable to be of much use. Feelings of hunger was of no concern to Hull, what concerned him was whether the concept of hunger was scientifically useful and led to testable hypotheses
question
Hull' S-R theory
answer
learning consists of the establishment of connections between specific stimuli and specific responses. Specific stimuli (input) yield specific responses (output), with certain internal events mediating the process. Hull was the most influential experimental psychologist of the 1940s and 1950s Major aspects of his theory were very difficult to test because it was highly mathematical and grew increasingly complex as equations were expanded and modified Cognitive information-processing approach draw analogy between humans and computers and traditional behavioral approach draws analogy between humans and rates. Humans are more like rates because they have marvelous ability to learn and adapt than computers. See page 23 for questions
question
3. Tolman's Cognitive Behaviorism AKA Purposive behaviorism
answer
1. Hull's S-R theory of learning is often categorized as a molecular theory because it viewed behavior as consisting of a long chain of specific responses connected to specific stimuli. 2. Tolman disagreed with this approach and believed that it would be more useful to analyze behavior on a molar (broader) level. 3. He felt that we can understand a rat's behavior in a maze more accurately as a goal-directed attempt to obtain food than as a long chain of responses connected to stimulus to get food.
question
gestalt psychologists
answer
perception is not simply the summation of different bits of conscious experience but is instead a holistic process resulting in an organized, coherent, perceptual experience. According to gestalt, the whole is more than the sum of the parts.
question
For Tolman, behavior
answer
1. was more than just a long chain of responses attached to stimuli. It was instead an overall pattern of behavior directed toward particular outcomes, and it can be properly analyzed only on that molar level 2. Tolman agreed that intervening variables may be useful in a theory of learning. Tolman's intervening variable were more mentalistic 2. theorists make use of the intervening variables, in the form of hypothesized cognitive processes, to help explain the relationship between environment and behavior 3. cognitive process, to help explain behavior. Tolman's most famous intervening variable is the cognitive map
question
cognitive map
answer
which is a mental representation of one's spatial surroundings. Evidence for this concept was provided by the study on latent learning=
question
Latent learning=
answer
Learning appears in the absence of the record and is Tolman and Honzik's experiment. It has been regarded has a demonstration of distinction between learning and performance This experiment was conducted in an attempt to disprove Hull's notion that behavior must be rewarded for learning to make place; that is, in the absence of some type of reward, nothing can be learned. What Tolman and Honzik found instead was a dramatic improvement in the rat's performance on the very next trial Tolman interpreted these results as indicating that the initially non-rewarded rats had in fact learned the maze during the first 10 trials of the experiment, and that they had learned it at least as well as the group that had been receiving food. This is a demonstration of
question
latent learning=
answer
learning occurs despite the absence of any observable indication of learning and only becomes apparent under a different set of conditions. The experiment also demonstrates the distinction between learning and performance, because learning was apparently taking place even when the subjects showed no evidence of such learning in their performance at that time Like Hull and Watson, Tolman believed that introspective reports of thoughts and feelings are so unreliable as to be of little scientific value. His theoretical inferences about cognitive processes were based entirely on direct observations of behavior and were thus objectively based. Tolman also believed strongly in the usefulness of animal research for discovering basic processes of learning, and almost all of his research was conducted with rats.
question
The study of cognitive process in nonhuman animals
answer
is called animal cognition or comparative cognition
question
How to read graphs:
answer
X-axis is the abscissa and is where the dependent variable goes Y=axis is called the ordinate and is where the independent variable goes See page 28 for quick quize
question
4. Bandura's Social Learning Theory:
answer
...
question
Social Leaning theory:
answer
was first used by followers of Hull who were attempting to apply Hullian concepts to human social behavior, particularly to the process of imitation 1. Bandura was very much interested in imitation, which he referred to as observational learning, and he eventually became the dominant researcher in the field. His most fomous investigations concern the influence of observational learning on aggressive behavior. His interpretation of learning process is more closely aligned with that of Tolman. Agreed with Tolman Learning: Latent learning= learning takes place in the absence of a reward
question
Bandura focuses on broad behavior
answer
patterns and emphasizes the distinction between learning and performance. He also gives internal events, such as expectations, a primary role in the learning process. The .
question
difference between Bandura and Tolman's approach
answer
is that these internal events are viewed actual events occurring within us that strongly influence our behavior. These internal events include self-referent thoughts about our abilities and accomplishments, a distinctly human form of cognition that bandura believes has significant impact on out behavior Bandura does not dismiss the value of introspectively observed subjective experience in explaining behavior
question
Social leaning theory:
answer
is a cognitive-behavioral approach that strongly emphasizes the importance of observational learning and cognitive variables in explaining human behavior. It has views of determinism= the notion that each behavior has a cause
question
Reciprocal determinism:
answer
Proposes that three variables event, behavior, and person variables all interact with each other EX: See example of your date on page 29 Bandura's work has influenced the development of a type of therapy known as cognitive behaviorism therapy, which an attempt is made to change behavior by altering both environment and cognitive factors Cognitive behavior therapy: which psychological disorders are treated by altering both environmental variables and cognitive processes See quick quiz on page 30
question
5. Skinner's Radical Behaviorism:
answer
Skinner argued for a return to a stricter form of behaviorism. His version of behaviorism is known as radical behaviorism
question
radical behaviorism:
answer
emphasizes the influence of the environment on observable (overt) behavior, rejects the use of internal events to explain behavior, and views thoughts and feelings as behaviors that themselves need to be explained. Radical behaviorism does not completely reject the inclusion of internal events in a science of behavior, it memrely rejects the use of these events as explanations for behavior
question
Skinner's View of Internal Event:
answer
o Skinner viewed internal events, such as sensing, thinking, and feelings, as covert or private behaviors that are subject to the same laws of learning as overt or publicly observable behaviors. Thus, internal events can be included in an analysis of behavior, but only as behaviors that themselves need to be explained
question
Problem with using internal events
answer
agreed with Watson that since we do not have direct access to the internal events of others, we must rely on their verbal reports of such events. 1. Our assessments of internal thoughts and feelings thus are often unreliable. Such unreliability is to be expected, given the manner in which people learn to label their internal events. 2. Young children need to be taught by their caretakers to describe their internal experiences 3. . The labels people learn to use to describe their feelings may be only crude approximations of what they actually fell. Skinner was uninterested in using a person's description of an internal emotional state as an explanation for behavior; he was however, quite interested in how people come to label their internal states 4. it is often difficult to determine the actual relationship of thoughts and feelings to behavior o People often take action in an emergency quite quickly, without reflecting upon how they feel o People's feelings about an event can often be altered simply by manipulating their behavior toward the event. o Figure 1.7: Three was in which feelings of concern can be associated with the behavior of helping (see page 32) 5. is that We do not have any means of directly changing these internal events. Our only means of changing both internal events and external behavior is to change some aspect of the environment 6. internal events has explanations based on instinct, such explanations are sometimes only pseudo-explanations. Saying that I am going to the movies because I "feel like going" is really no explanation at all
question
o Skinner rejected internal events as explanations for behavior
answer
instead, he focused on the environment—in particular, the environmental consequences of our behavior---as ultimate cause of both observable behavior (overt behavior) and internal events (covert behavior). He assumed that once we understand the manner in which the environment affects us, we can change the environment so that it will exert a more beneficial influence on our behavior. This is called countercontrol=
question
countercontrol=
answer
which is the deliberate manipulation of environmental events to alter their impact on our behavior o Figure 1.8: A diagrammatic representation of Skinner's view of the relationship between environmental events, internal events, and observable behavior. Although all three components are capable of influencing each other, the emphasis is on environmental events as the ultimate cause of both observable behavior and internal events ( page 34 ) o The environment ultimately determines both external behavior and internal events See page 34 for quiz
question
Skinner's approach as Molar:
answer
o Skinner disagreed with Tolman about the value of using internal events to help explain behavior, he agreed with Tolman in emphasizing a molar rather than a molecular approach o He did not believe as Watson and Hull did that all behaviors consist of long chains of S-R connections that propel the animal forward in a robotic, step-by-step fashion. Skinner instead believed that only reflexive behaviors—those that can be classically conditioned, such as salivating in response to food—are automatically elicited by the stimuli that precede them. These behaviors need to be distinguished from operant behaviors=behaviors that are controlled by their consequences= which are more reflexive, less predictable quality of them. o Tolmanian rat is running through the maze because it expects that doing so will lead to food, whereas the Skinnerian rat is running through the maze because such behavior has in the past resulted in food. o Skinner preffered to explain the behavior simply referring to past experience
question
Skinner's View of Genetic Factors
answer
1. Behaviorist study the effects of environmental experiences on behavior 2. Darwin's theory of evolution played a strong role in the eventual establishment of behaviorism, and many behaviorists clearly recognize that heredity can profoundly influence animal and human behavior o Skinner repeal acknowledged that behavior was fundamentally the result of the interaction between genes and the environment. o Skinner also noted that operant conditioning bears a striking resemblance to the evolutionary principle of natural selection o According to the principle of Operant conditioning, behaviors that lead to reinforcing consequences are more likely to be repeated, whereas those that do not lead to reinforcing consequences ae less likely to be repeated. Operant conditioning is sort of a mini-evolution in which behaviors that are adaptive ( that leads to reinforces) increase in frequency while behaviors that are nonadaptive (that do no lead to reinforcers) decrease frequency. o The basic differences is that natural selection is concerned with the evolution of inherited characteristics within a species, whereas operant conditioning is concerned with the evolution of learned behavior patterns within an individual o A strong empiricist approach such as that exemplified by Skinner and other behaviorists, tend to be more optimistic about the possibility of changing behavior for the better See page 36 for quiz
question
Behavior Analysis and Applied Behavior Analysis
answer
Skinner was careful to distinguish between the philosophical aspect of his approach and the experimental science that grew out of that approach.
question
Radical behaviorism:
answer
refers to the philosophical aspect of Skinner's approach, consisting of the set of assumption, which we discussed earlier, upon which his behavioral science is based. The basic science that grew out of radical behaviorism was called experimental analysis of behavior:
question
experimental analysis of behavior
answer
now called behavior analysis= follow the lead of Skinner, have especially concentrated on researching the various principles of operant conditioning. Skinner was concerned that the principles discovered through research should have practical application. His work directly led to the establishment of applied behavior analysis: a
question
applied behavior analysis
answer
a technology of behavior in which basic principles of behavior are applied to solving real-world issues. These applications rage from helping people with clinical disorders to improving educational practices, to implementing programs that encourage communities to stop polluting and conserve energy. Applied behavior analysis is also sometimes referred to as behavior modification
question
behavior modification
answer
refer to more cognitive behavioral approaches to treatment than would be found in pure applied behavior analysis See page 37 for quiz
question
chapter 2 Methods for obtaining data include
answer
• Methods for obtaining data include 1. naturalistic observation case studies 2. control group designs 3. single-subjects designs
question
Behavioral research involves comparisons
answer
between 1. experimental groups that receive some kind of manipulation (or treatment) and 2. control groups that do not receive that manipulation
question
Behavioral analysis= Skinner
answer
have strong preference for conducting experiments that require only one or, at most, a few subjects= single-subject designs (single case)
question
A variable:
answer
is a characteristic of a person, place, or thing that can change (vary) over time or from one situation to another. EX: Temperature, height, weight, marital status (single, married, divorced or separated), gender ( M, F), Age, hair color, fun and friendship
question
Independent variable:
answer
Aspect of an experiment that systematically varies across the different conditions in the experiment. The IV is manipulated in an experiment
question
Dependent variable:
answer
is the aspect of an experiment that is allowed to vary freely to see if it is affected by change in the independent variable. DV is what is measured in and experiment. Changes in DV are dependent upon changes in IV. The size of a reinforce affect the efficiency of learning • The DV is always some behavior and the IV is some environmental event that is presumed to influence the behavior. The relationship between DV and IV is called Functional relationships
question
Functional Relationships:
answer
Behaviorist are interested to discovering functional relationships between environmental events and behavior. A functional relationship can also be thought of as a cause- and-effect relationships, with changes in the IV being the cause and changes in the DV being the effect IV causes the change in DV (effect) See quiz on page 54
question
Stimulus:
answer
is any event that can potentially influence behavior. Sometimes referred to as a cue in that it serves as a signal for the occurrence of a certain behavior
question
Response:
answer
is a particular instance of a behavior EX: food is the stimulus that elicits the response of salivation when presented food to a hungry dog EX: Red light serves as the cue for Stopping and Green light serve as a cue for preceding EX: The response of one organism can act as the cue or stimulus that influences the response of another organism Plural of stimulus is stimuli.
question
Social interactions
answer
generally consist of a chain of alternating responses with each response acting as a stimulus for the next response from the other person
question
Overt behavior:
answer
Is a behavior that has the potential for being directly observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior. It is the behavior that could be publically observed if others were present. Usually used by behaviorist
question
Covert Behavior:
answer
1. is a behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior. Some can not be seen publically and some are seen publically. 2. It is a behavior that is subjectively perceived and is not publically observable EX: thinking, feeling etc, and dreaming. 3. Some convert behaviors have components that could be made publicly observable. EX: A feeling of anxiety for example, is likely to involve increases in heart rate and muscle tension, both of which could be electronically measured. 4. Convert and overt behaviors within the same person can act as stimuli for each other. EX; Thinking about one's next move in chess ( a convert behavior) is a stimulus that influences which chess piece you actually move ( an overt behavior), while accidentally moving the wrong chess piece ( an overt behavior) is a stimulus that induces you to think unpleasant thought about yourself ( a covert behavior). The environment does not stop with the skin; events both outside the skin and inside the skin can influence our behavior
question
Appetitive Stimuli:
answer
is an event that an organism will seek out. EX: Food is an appetitive stimulus when we are hungry; EX: water is an appetitive stimulus when we are thirsty (pleasant event)
question
Aversive Stimuli:
answer
: is an event that an organism will avoid. EX: Electric shock and extreme heat are examples of aversive stimuli. (Unpleasant event) Different people have their own view of what they consider pleasant and unpleasant Quiz on page 56
question
Establishing Operations:
answer
A procedure that affects the appetitiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus EX: • Food is an appetitive stimulus to a hungry rat but might not be an appetitie stimulus to a rat that has just eaten.
question
Two types of Establishing Operations are:
answer
Operations: defining a IV the way you will test it. 1. Deprivation: 2. Satiation:
question
1. Deprivation:
answer
Is the prolonged absence of an event, which often increases the appetitiveness of that event. 2. If an event, which used as a reinforce (reward) for some behavior—such as food being used as a reinforcer for lever pressing—then we could also define deprivation as a procedure that increases the reinforcing value of an event. EX: Not eating for a long time will give you the desire to eat
question
2. Satiation:
answer
refers to the prolonged exposure to ( or consumption of) an event, which often decreases the appetitiveness of that event. A large meal and is thus satiated on food. EX: hearing a music so many times will make you tire of it. Deprivation increases the appetitiveness of an event while satiation decreases its appetitiveness. EX: People who undertake severe diets sometimes acquire a disorder known as anorexia nervosa. Severe food deprivation seems to decrease the appetitive value of food rather than increase it, and these people eat even less food than the diet allows.
question
Contiguity:
answer
closeness or nearness
question
Temporal contiguity:
answer
is the extent to which events occur close together in time. EX: thunder and lighting are temporally contigious
question
Spatial contiguity:
answer
is the extent of which events are situated close to each other in space. It is easier for a rat to learn to press a lever for food if the food dispenser is close to the lever as opposed to being several feet away EX: sound of a knock is spatially contiguous with the door because the sound comes from the door. The sound of the doorbell is not spatial because it comes from the box next to the door.
question
Contingency:
answer
Is a predictive ( or functional) relationship between two events, such that the occurrence of one event predicts the probable occurrence of another. The happening of one event, predict the happening of another event. EX: if a rat receives a food pellet whenever it presses a lever, then a contingency exists between lever pressing and food. We then say that the presentation of food is contingent on lever pressing EX: If a child receives a big balloon every time she goes to the dentists, then a contingency exists between visiting the dentists and receiving the balloon, receiving the balloon is contingent upon visiting the dentists See quiz on page 58
question
Measurement of Behavior Behavioral definitions:
answer
When we study the effect of certain variables on a behavior, we have to define the behavior (Operationalize). The behavior defined should be objective in the sense that they refer to some observable aspect of the individual's behavior. EX: Yelling and striking are observable aspects of aggressive behavior, but feelings of anger are not. Defining aggression in terms of physical characteristics of yelling and striking is more precise than defining it as feeling of anger.
question
The operational definition of a behavior
answer
be unambiguous= clearly defined. EX: We might define yelling as a loud vocalization that continues for more than 5 seconds and can be heard outside a closed door. Striking might be defined as a rapid arm or leg movement that results in physical contact with a human being and a thing.
question
An unambiguous definition will ensure that
answer
1. our measurements of the behavior are relatively consistent over time and across settings. 2. will make it easier for other researchers to replicate our results. 3. beneficial outside the research setting, particularly in tasks such as child-rearing. A major problem faced by many children is that parents often shift heir standards as to what constitutes appropriate behavior. EX: a parent might constantly tell a child that eating in the living room is wrong, but then allow eating in the living room when visitors arrive or when the family is watching a movie. Three warning rule: if one of the children is asked to get ready to go swimming with her aunt, she must comply by the third warning or else suffer a negative consequence ( will not be allowed to go swim) Because the rule is so well defined and allows the child a certain amount of time to get mobilized, negative consequences rarely have to be imposed.
question
Recording Methods: Ways a behavior can be measured
answer
1. Rate of response 2. Intensity 3.Duration 4. Speed 5. Latency 6. Interval Recording 7. Time-Sample Recording 8.Topography 9. Number of Errors 10. Assessing Reliability
question
1. Rate of response:
answer
1. which is the frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time. Rate measurements are most appropriate when the response is of brief duration, with a well-defined start and finish (onset and offset). When defining rate, include time: ex: the number of lever pressed per hour is a rate measure of behavior.
question
Example of a study that uses Rate of Response
answer
Operant conditioning Operant conditioning is created to measure behavior in terms of rate. EX: rats pressing levers to earn food. The lever press is a very definable response because once the lever is pressed sufficiently for the micro-switch to be activated, a response is electronically recorded. o Rate is a particularly favored measure among some behaviorists (radical behaviorists) because it tends to be highly sensitive to the influence of other variable.
question
Fluency measures of learning
answer
are a basic aspect of a behavioral approach to instruction known as precision learning
question
o Cumulative recorder:
answer
Is a classic device that measures the total number of responses over time and provides a graphic depiction of the rate of behavior The important thing to remember is that the steeper the line, the higher the rate of response. A cumulative record provides an 1. easily read 2. graphic depiction of changes in the organism's rate of response over time
question
Intensity:
answer
: is the force or magnitude (amount) of the behavior. ex: in Pavlov's classical conditioning procedure with dogs, a tone (stimulus) was associated with food, such that the tone itself eventually came to elicit salivation Tone: food= salivation Tone= salivation The strength of conditioning was typically measured as the amount (magnitude) of saliva produced whenever the tone was sounded by itself
question
o Duration:
answer
is the length of time that an individual repeatedly or continuously performs a certain behavior
question
o Speed:
answer
is a measure of how quickly or slowly a behavior occurs, or the rapidity with which one progresses through some type of distance
question
o Latency:
answer
is the length of time required for behavior to begin. The strength of conditioning can be measured not only in terms of the amount of saliva (Intensity), but in terms of how soon the dog begins salivating after it hears the tone (latency) o Ex: the amount of time it takes for her to commence running when she hears the starting pistol is a measure of latency. The amount of time it takes for her to complete the race is a measure of speed. The amount of time she trains each day is a measure of duration
question
o Interval recording
answer
the measurement of whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of continuous intervals. EX: If we wish to measure the amount of aggressive behavior in a classroom, we might videotape hours of class time. Observers will view the video tape to see if aggression occurred. We are not concerned with how many aggressive incidents occurred in each interval, only with whether at least one aggressive incident occurred in each interval. For example: If at least one act of aggression occurred in 12 of the 18 intervals, then 12/18 X 100= 66.7% The percentage of intervals during which at least one incident occurred is our measure of the behavior.
question
A major advantage of interval recording
answer
1. is that one does not have to record every single response 2. useful when is difficult to determine the point at which the behavior starts and stops 3. Do not care about when the behavior started or ended. Just need to observe the behavior in one interval and take the percentage of it.
question
o Time-sample recording:
answer
measures whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of discontinuous intervals ( intervals that are spaced apart) o For both interval and time-sample recording we do not measure the number of responses that occur in each interval but rather the number of interval in which at least one response occurs.
question
Example of Time-sample recording
answer
To assess the level of aggression in a classroom, we might have an observer unobtrusively enter the classroom for a 10-minute intervals at the start of each half-hour and record whether at least one aggressive incident occurred during that interval. The behavior of the students is thus intermittently sampled, and the percentage of these sampled intervals in which aggressive incident occurred is our overall measure of aggression. EX: over the past 6 hours we are able to sample 12 ten-minute intervals. If one or more aggressive incidents occurred in nine of those intervals, then the overall level of aggression will be 9/12 X 100= 75%
question
o Topography:
answer
is the actual physical form of the behavior. It is the topography of the behavior that we are concerned with when we teach a child how to dress appropriately, write neatly, and brush his teeth properly.
question
o Number of Errors:
answer
Any behavior in which responses can be categorized as right or wrong can be assessed in terms of the number of error. Number of wrong turns. EX: The number of errors a student makes on an exam is the traditional method for determining how well the student knows the material
question
Assessing Reliability:
answer
researchers attempt to utilize two or more independent observers for at least part of the assessment period, and then calculate the extent to which the observers agree versus disagree on their observations
question
Inter-observer reliability
answer
is calculated as the number of intervals during which the observers agree divided by the total number of intervals. EX: 10/12 X 100= 83.3%. There are no hard and fast rules about what constitutes adequate reliability, but 80% is often regarded as the minimum acceptable level of 90% as the preferred level Usually if the % is too high, the answer will be inadequate because two people cannot agree very easily on the same thing See quiz on page 65
question
Research Designs:
answer
...
question
Descriptive Research:
answer
1. Involves simply describing the behavior and the situation in which it occurs. 2. Do not involve the manipulation of any variable. 3. Two commonly used descriptive methods are naturalistic observation and case studies
question
Naturalistic observation:
answer
involves the systematic observation and recording of behavior in its natural environment. Have biases if not done correctly.
question
To avoid biases in the naturalistic study
answer
researchers attempt 1. to define their variables objectively and unambiguously= clear manner 2. make their observations in a consistent and uniform manner.
question
Jane Goodball's example of naturalistic observation
answer
systematic study of chimpanzee behavior in the wild. Through her detailed observations, we now know that chimpanzees eat meat, use primitive tools, and engage in warfare.
question
Naturalistic observation is
answer
a commonly used approach in 1. ethology, a branch of zoology that focuses on the study of inherited behavior patterns in animals to help animals cope with its natural environment. 2. Inherited behavior patterns are usually best studied within the natural environment because the behavior may not occur when the animal is removed from that environment. EX: a dog's gesture of rolling over on its back and displaying its underlying can be more clearly seen as a submissive gesture when dogs interacts with each other than when they interact with us. Although naturalistic observation is ideal for studying inherited behavior patterns, it also contributes to our understanding of learning
question
The naturalistic approach
answer
is excellent for gaining rich, detailed information about a behavior and the circumstances in which It typically occurs. Problem with this approach: 1. is that it often leaves us uncertain as to which variables are most important in determining the behavior (is hard to know why the behavior are happening, what affects the behavior to happen?) 2. Have biases 3. And the results cannot be generalized
question
Limitation: As a naturalistic observer, one
answer
1. cannot intervene or ask the participants any questions for clarification. 2. The natural environment is a vast sea of variables, and sorting out which variables are responsible for which behavior can be a daunting task. 3. The naturalistic observation approach is often insufficient for gaining a full understanding of a behavior and the variables that influence it.
question
2. Case studies approach:
answer
involves the intensive examination of one or a few individuals. Case studies can be 1. done in natural settings as a form of naturalistic observation or 2. they may involve detailed examination in a more structured setting such a clinic. 3. Are used in medical research. Individuals who have suffered certain types of neurological damage often provide us with insight into which areas of the brain control which functions.
question
Case studies Is applied to disease such as fugue states:
answer
in which a person suddenly moves away from home and assumes a different identity— for which the few case studies available constitute our only source of information
question
Catharsis:
answer
the release of tension that is assumed to automatically result from expressing pent-up thoughts and emotions.
question
It is important to ensure that case studies are based on
answer
1. systematic observation and 2. that researcher bias has been reduced to a minimum by defining the variable objectively and unambiguously (clear)
question
The limitation for case studies and other descriptive approaches
answer
2. problem of research bias= the opinions and beliefs of the researcher can unduly influence his or her observations. 1. the results can be generalized to other people, places, and times 3. Cannot determine which variable causes change in the DV. 4. Is not the best way to understand a behavior and its natural environment Advantage: 1. provides a valuable starting point for further investigations. See quiz on page 69
question
General Idea about naturalistic and case studies
answer
1. Both approaches are susceptible to the problem of research bias, in which the opinions and beliefs of the researcher can unduly influence his or her observations= bias 2. The major limitations of both approaches is that it is often difficult to specify which variables influence which behavior 3. Because the case study approach often involves only one person, the results may be limited inn the extent to which they can be generalized to other people, places, and times
question
Descriptive research methods such as naturalistic observations and case studie
answer
provide detailed information about behavior but not the cause of behavior
question
Experimental Research:
answer
Is used to find 1. the cause and effect of behavior 2. In experimental method, one or more IV are used to determine their effect on the dependent variable
question
Two types of experimental designs
answer
1. Control group designs and single-subject designs
question
Control group designs
answer
1. Individuals are randomly assigned to either an experimental (or treatment) group or a control group; 2. individuals assigned to the experimental group are exposed to a certain manipulation or treatment, 3. whereas those assigned to the control group are not. Exposure to free reinforcers can sometimes impair an organism's ability to learn how to respond to reinforcers Control group designs are excellent for assessing the general effects of certain variables. Cause -and-effect Statements are possible due to the strict native explanations. Random assignment of subjects to each condition also ensures that various characteristics of the subjects in each group are likely to be evenly distributed across the experimental and control conditions. A large number of subjects is needed in order to use the control group. The larger the number of subjects, the more trustworthy is the result. They are excellent for assessing general relationships between independent and depend variables.
question
Limitation of control group design
answer
1. These designs not well suited for investigating the effect of a certain treatment on a particular individual. ( We cannot use this design if we want to study the effect of a particular treatment on an individual) 2. They typically focus on the average performance of all subjects in each group. Little attention is given to the performance of individual subjects, even if some subjects differ markedly from the average. ( Focuses only on the group in which the subjects are in and does not take individual differences in each group) See example in the book 3. The results are often analyzed and interpreted only a the end of the experiment, rather than during the experiment EX: we are treating a child for self their learning injurious behavior, we need to be aware throughout whether our treatment is having a positive effect. If the effect is positive, we can maintain the treatment; if the effect is negative, we should immediately halt our treatment and try something different. By contrast, control group designs that measure effects only at the end of the study, usually do not provide us with this type of flexibility 4. Weakness about comparative type of control group design: species differ in more ways than just their learning capacity or style. EX: If we were comparing cats and hedgedogs for escape learning, we might find that cats learn to escape relatively quickly when they see a cue related the onset of electric shock, whereas hend not to run away from this potentially dangerous situation. 5. We cannot monitor the individual progress throughout the study and the results cannot be generalized to an individual.
question
The limitation of control group design
answer
1. requires a large number of participants 2. They focus on the average performance on all subjects in each group 3. The results are analyzed and interpreted only at the end of the experiment 4. We cannot investigate the effect of a particular treatment on the individual 5. The results is generalized to a larger population not the signal individual
question
Group Data
answer
is combined to produce a statistical average, but the scores of some individuals within the group may deviate markedly from this average, therefore, average results may have little relevance to certain individuals By ignoring individual data, we might never consider such a possibility
question
2x 3 factorial design
answer
There are two IV (food and age), the first of which has two levels (Free food versus no food) and the second which have three levels (old age virus middle age versus young age) If free food affects learning ability only in rats of a certain age, then we say that there is an interaction between the effects of free food and age.
question
Comparative design:
answer
is a type of control group design in which different species constitute one of the IV. Is used to asses behavioral differences between species. 1. can be simple or factorial and they can involve more than one IV or DV.
question
The main distinction between comparative designs and standard control group designs
answer
( other than the use of more than one species) is that in a comparative design you do not have a pure control group that receives no treatment
question
Quiz on page 73
answer
...
question
Single-Subject Designs
answer
1. require only one or a few subjects to conduct an entire experiment.
question
For types of single-subject design
answer
1. Simple-comparison design 2.Reversal design 3. Multiple-baseline design 4. Changing-criterion design
question
Simple- Comparison (AB) Design
answer
behavior in a baseline condition is compared to behavior in a treatment condition EX: Cory wishes to cut down on smoking ( first step to quit) and wonders if he might be able to do so by punishing himself
question
Self-punishment procedure
answer
people apply an aversive consequence to themselves each time they engage in an unwanted target behavior
question
Baseline of a behavior
answer
is the normal frequency of the behavior that occurs before some intervention
question
reactivity)
answer
If there is a upward or downward trend in the moment smoked during baseline (sometimes the mere act of closely monitoring a behavior can result in some improvement= reactivity
question
Example of AB design
answer
EX: Cory gives his friend 25 cents for each cigarette he smokes. This means that Cory has implemented a fine or tax on himself to try to reduce the amount he smokes First step: Cory take a baseline measure of the number of cigarettes he typically smokes each day/ self-punishment program. The baseline last several days to provide good assessment of the typical frequency of Cory's smoking If there is a upward or downward trend in the moment smoked during baseline (sometimes the mere act of closely monitoring a behavior can result in some improvement= reactivity) Following the baseline---Cory should put in the self-punishment procedure--for several days. A--B If the treatment is effective, the frequency of smoking should be lower in treatment condition than in the baseline condition A= baseline B= treatment A and B indicate the order in which the treatment occur
question
Problem with AB design = simple-comparison design
answer
1. It does not control for the possibility confounding variables at same time that treatment was implemented, and it was this other event that caused the change in the behavior 2. It does not clearly demonstrate a functional relationship between the independent variable ( self- punishment ( treatment) and the dependent variable (smoking)
question
Reversal design
answer
is a type of single-subject design that involves repeated alternations between a baseline period and a treatment period. If the behavior systematically changes each time the treatment is instituted and later withdrawn, then a functional relationship (IV and DV) and has been demonstrated between the treatment and the behavior In the Cory example A--B--A- Starts with baseline, go to treatment and than baseline again. If the result of the second baseline is better than the first baseline, we will determine that the treatment helped him stop smoking
question
Strengths of the reversal design
answer
1. It allows an entire experiment to be conducted with a single subject 2. Is often ideal for determining the effectiveness of a behavioral intervention (treatment) for a particular person ( 3. Some behaviorists argue that statistical tests are not needed to determine if the changes in behavior are meaningful. If the results are not clear enough to be judged by visual inspection, the investigator must try to do a precise control over the variables influencing the target behavior and to strive for powerful treatments that produce large effects 4. Can be used to assess the effectiveness of ,more than one treatment on the dependent variables
question
How can the reversal study be generalized to a larger population?
answer
1. By conducting the study with more than one subject. Since each subject in the study constitutes an entire experiment, each additional subject constitutes a replication of that experiment. If we find the same pattern of results for all of the subjects exposed to these procedures, the findings are likely to have good generality
question
Studies that use reversal (as well as other single-subject designs
answer
are often conducted with four or more individuals to ensure that the results do have good generality
question
ABCAC design
answer
Reversal design can also be used to assess the effectiveness of more than one treatment. EX: if Cory treatment did not work, he could increase the self-punishment to 30 cents instead of 25 cents. This will be called treatment C. Than he will go back to baseline to see if treatment C worked (there is a difference from the initial way of smoking= smoking went down) The implementation of this large punisher constitutes a new phase of treatment called phase C. If after a week, the treatment appear to be success, Cory can go back to baseline for a week and then return again to the treatment to confirm its effectiveness
question
Disadvantage of reversal design
answer
1. If the behavior doesn't revert (return) to its original baseline level when the treatment is withdrawn, we will be left wondering if the treatment was effective We are not sure if self-punishment was the cause of the initial decrease in smoking 2. Is inappropriate for situations in which the treatment is intended to produce a long-lasting effect (permanent). 3. It may be ethically inappropriate to remove a treatment once some improvement has been obtained Alternative to all these disadvantages is to use multiple base line design quiz on page 78
question
Multiple-baseline design
answer
A treatment is instituted at successive points in time for two or more persons, settings, or behaviors
question
Example of Multiple-baseline design
answer
Imagine that we have three people who wish to try a self-punishment program for smoking. 1. Take the baseline measurement for each person for a week 2. At the end of the week, have one person begin the treatment, while the other two carry on with the baseline. 3. At the end of the second week, we have a second person begin the treatment while the third person carries on with the baseline 4. At the end of the third week, the third person begins treatment Thus, across the three individuals, the treatment is implemented at different points in time. If the improvement in smoking coincides with the implementation of the treatment for each individual, then a functional relationship between the treatment and the improvement in behavior has been demonstrated
question
Another example of Example of Multiple-baseline design
answer
Cory's rate of smoking in three different settings: at work, at home, and at the coffee shop. After a week of baseline, Cory begins self-punishing his smoking at work. After the second week, Cory begins self-punishing his smoking at home while still doing his work one. After 3 weeks, Cory begins self-punishing his smoking at coffee shop. If his rate of smoking in each setting drops only at the point when the self-punishment procedure is implemented, then the procedure is highly likely to be the cause of the improvement
question
Another example of Example of Multiple-baseline design 3
answer
Three of Cory's problem behaviors--ex: smoking, swearing, and nail-biting. If the behavior shows improvement only when the treatment is implemented, then we have again demonstrated a functional relationship between the treatment and behavior
question
The multiple-baseline design is a good alternative to the reversal design in that we
answer
1. do not have to worry about withdrawing the treatment to determine that it is effective. (We do not have to withdraw the treatment to determine if it is effective. 2. This design is used for situations in which treatment is likely to produce a permanent change in behavior, or in which it may be unethical to withdraw the treatment once some improvement has been achieved.
question
Disadvantage of multiple-baseline design
answer
1. is limited because we need to have more than one person, setting, or behavior to which the treatment can be applied 2. The treatment effect might generalize across the different settings or behaviors before the treatment is instituted within those settings or behaviors
question
quiz page 81
answer
...
question
Changing-Criterion Design
answer
The treatment is not intended to produce a large immediate change in behavior but rather a gradual change over time. the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered
question
Example of Changing-Criterion Design
answer
Cory decides to use self-punishment to gradually reduce his smoking behavior. Following a baseline period, he sets a certain criterion for an allowable number of cigarettes that only slightly less than the average number of cigarettes he smoked during the baseline If he successfully meets this criterion for 3 consecutive days, he reduces the allowable limit by two cigarettes. If he meets that criterion for 3 successive days, he reduces the limit by two more cigarettes. He repeats this process until the eventual goal of no smoking has been achieved. The self-punishment procedure is tearing up a dollar bill for every cigarette that is smoked over the allowable limit
question
Benefit of Changing-Criterion design
answer
1. Is appropriate for situations in which the behavior is intended to change gradually by some specific amount. 2. The behavior must match the criterion to determine if the treatment caused change in the behavior The reversal design and multiple-baseline deign and changing-criterion design are the most single-subject designs mostly used.
question
In experimental research, the reversal design
answer
is often employed in studies of operant conditioning, whereas the control group design is often employed in studies of classical conditioning
question
The value of any experimental design is
answer
it enables us to make causal statements about the effects of independent variables on dependent variables.
question
Disadvantage of experimental method
answer
1. Because of the need to strictly control the environment, experimental settings are sometimes quite artificial, with the result that the findings may have limited applicability to the real world
question
Use of Animal in Behavioral Research
answer
Animal research has greatly contributed to our understanding and treatment of serious diseases and illnesses, as well as to our understanding of basic physiological processes. many of the basic research with behavior has been discovered through the use of animals.
question
four advantages of animal research
answer
1. The ability to control their genetic makeup 2.their learning history 3. Researchers are often able to more strictly control the experimental environment for animals than humans. 4. Some research cannot ethically be conducted with humans
question
The ability to control their genetic makeup
answer
Knowledge about an animal's genetic makeup may help us eliminate or assess, the effects of inherited differences on learning and behavior Animals bred for research have had somewhat identical experiences during their upbringing, along with a fairly limited learning history It is impossible to control for the learning histories of humans who volunteer for psychological research
question
experimental environment for animals than humans.
answer
This advantage is important in behavioral research in which we are attempting to isolate and manipulate certain aspects of the environment to determine their effect on behavior EX: The behavior of rat and mice are consistent from day to day Because animals are easily insulated from extraneous influences during the course of the experiment, their behavior is more likely to reflect the true influence of the independent variable
question
Some research cannot ethically be conducted with humans
answer
Aversive=harmful experiment are done by using animals
question
animal model
answer
is a procedure that uses animals to mimic a particular human characteristic or symptom, such as drug addiction or obesity which can then be systematically investigated to a greater extent than would be possible with humans
question
Disadvantage of Animal research
answer
1. Because animals are not humans, the findings from animal research necessarily have limited applicability to humans 2. Animal research is morally wrong and animals have rights similar to human (is wrong to put animals in cages, subjecting them to electric shock, depriving them of food It was in 1960s, that animal care committees and review boards became strongly established
question
http://www.allstarhealth.com/ca.aspx?b=add&p=20573&q=1
answer
...
question
Ethics committees have been established to weigh the costs and benefits of proposed research involving animals
answer
...
