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Motivation

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Internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior.

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Intrinsic motivation

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The natural human tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise our capabilities. No need of incentives or punishments because the activity itself is satisfying and rewarding. Self determined.

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Extrinsic motivation

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Motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments. Not really interested in the activity for it's own sake; only care about what it will gain us. Fully determined by others.

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Locus of causality

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The location - internal or external - of the cause of behavior.

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Reward

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An attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of a behavior.

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Incentive

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An object or event that encourages or discourages behavior.

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Humanistic interpretation

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Approach to motivation that emphasizes personal freedom, choice, self-determination, and striving for personal growth.

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Expectancy x value theories

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Explanations of motivation that emphasize individuals' EXPECTATIONS for success combined with their VALUING of the goal. Characterization of social cognitive explanation of motivation.

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Sociocultural views of motivation

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Perspectives that emphasize participation, identities, and interpersonal relations within communities of practice.

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5 general theories/views of motivation:

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1. Behavioral. 2. Humanistic. 3. Cognitive. 4. Social cognitive. 5. Sociocultural.

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Behavioral motivation

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Source of motivation: Extrinsic. Important influences: Reinforcers, rewards, incentives, and punishers. Key Theorists: Skinner

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Humanistic motivation

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Source of motivation: Intrinsic. Important influences: Need for self-esteem, self-fulfillment, and self-determination. Key Theorists: Maslow, Deci

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Cognitive motivation

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Source of motivation: Intrinsic. Important Influences: Beliefs, attributions for success and failure, expectations. Key Theorists: Weiner, Graham.

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Social cognitive motivation

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Source of motivation: Intrinsic & Extrinsic. Important Influences: Goals, expectations, intentions, self-efficacy. Key Theorists: Locke & Latham, Bandura

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Sociocultural motivation

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Source of motivation: Intrinsic. Important Influences: Engaged participation in learning communities; maintaining identity through participation in activities of group. Key Theorists: Lave, Wenger.

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In cognitive theories people are viewed as:

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Active and curious, searching for information to solve personally relevant problems.

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Cognitive theorists empasize

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Intrinsic motivation

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Legitimate peripheral participation

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Genuine involvement in the work of the group, even if your abilities are undeveloped and contributions are small.

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4 broad areas of motivation that are useful for teaching:

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1. Needs. 2. Goals. 3. Beliefs. 4. Emotional "hot" side of motivation - interests, curiosity, emotions, and anxiety.

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Hierarchy of needs

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Maslow's model of seven levels of human needs, from basic physiological requirements to the need for self-actualization.

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Self-actualization

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Fulfilling one's potential.

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Deficiency needs

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Maslow's four lower-level needs, which must be satisfied first. 1. Need for survival. 2. Need for safety. 3. Need for Belonging. 4. Need for self-esteem.

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When deficiency needs are satisfied,

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The motivation for fulfilling them decreases.

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Being needs / Growth needs

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Maslow's three higher-level needs, sometimes called growth needs. 1. Need for intellectual achievement. 2. Need for aesthetic appreciation. 3. Need for self-actualization. Can never be completely filled.

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When being or growth needs are met,

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A person's motivation does not cease; instead, it increases to seek further fulfillment.

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Self-determination theory

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Suggests that we all need to feel competent and capable in our interactions in the world, to have some choices and sense of control over our lives, and to be connected to others - to belong to a social group.

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Need for autonomy

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The desire to have our own wishes, rather than external rewards or pressures, determine our actions. Is central to self-determination.

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Cognitive evaluation theory

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Suggests that events affect motivation through the individual's perception of the events as controlling behavior or providing information. All events have 2 aspects: Controlling and Informational.

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The need for relatedness

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The desire to establish close emotional bonds and attachments with others. Related to the sense of belonging.

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Goal

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An outcome or attainment an individual strives to accomplish.

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4 main reasons why goal setting improves performance:

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1. Direct attention to the task at hand and away from distractions. 2. Energize effort. 3. Increase persistence. 4. Promote the development of new knowledge and strategies when old strategies fall short.

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Goal orientations

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Patters of beliefs about goals related to achievement in school.

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Mastery goal

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A personal intention to improve abilities and learn, no matter how performance suffers. The point is to learn, now matter how awkward you appear. The quality of a student's engagement in the task is higher.

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Performance goal

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A personal intention to seem competent or perform well in the eyes of others.

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4 main goal orientations

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1. Mastery: task/learning. 2. Performance: ability/ego/looking good. 3. Work-avoidance. 4. Social.

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Mastery avoid

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Fear misunderstanding

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Performance avoid

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Avoid looking dumb

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Work-avoidant learners

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Students who don't want to learn or to look smart, but just want to avoid work.

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Social goals

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A wide variety of needs and motivations to be connected to others or part of a group.

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3 additional factors that make goal setting in the classroom effective:

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1. Feedback. 2. Goal framing. 3. Goal acceptance.

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Epistemological beliefs

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Beliefs about the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge, and how knowledge is best learned.

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Entity view of ability

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Belief that ability is a fixed characteristic that cannot be changed.

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Incremental view of abilty

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Belief that ability is a set of skills that can be changed.

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Students who hold an entity, or unchangeable, view of intelligence tend to:

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Set performance avoid goals to avoid looking bad in the eyes of others.

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Teachers who hold entity views

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Are quicker to form judgements about students and slower to modify their opinions when confronted with contradictory evidence.

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Teachers who hold incremental views

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Tend to set mastery goals and seek situations in which students can improve their skills, because improvement means getting smarter. Failure is not devastating; it simply indicates more work is needed.

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Attribution theories

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Descriptions of how individuals' explanations justifications, and excuses influence their motivation and behavior.

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Self-efficacy

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Beliefs about personal competence in a particular situation.

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According to Bernar Weiner, most of the attributed causes for success or failures can be characterized in terms of 3 dimensions:

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1. Locus. 2. Stability. 3. Controllability.

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Locus

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Location of cause - internal or external to the person.

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Stability

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Whether the cause of the event is the same across time and in different situations.

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Controllability

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Whether the person can control the cause.

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The greatest motivational problems arise when students attribute failures to

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stable, uncontrollable causes.

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Learned helplessness

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The expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all one's efforts will lead to failure.

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Learned helplessness appears to cause 3 types of deficits:

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1. Motivational. 2. Cognitive. 3. Affective.

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Mastery-oriented students

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Students who focus on learning goals because they value achievement and see ability as improvable.

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Failure-avoiding students

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Students who avoid failure by sticking to what they know, by not taking risks, or by claiming not to care about their performance.

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Self-handicapping

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Students may engage in behavior that blocks their own success in order to avoid testing their true ability.

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Failure-accepting students

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Students who believe their failures are due to low ability and there is little they can do about it.

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There are 2 kinds of interests:

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1. Personal / individual. 2. Situational / The trait and state distinction.

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Personal / individual interests

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Are more long-lasting aspects of the person, such as an enduring tendency to be attracted to or to enjoy subjects such as languages, history, or mathematics, or activities such as sports, music, or films. Have more positive attitudes toward schooling.

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Situational interests

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Are more short-lived aspects of the activity, text, or materials that catch and keep the student's attention.

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Amygdala

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Stimulation to this small area of the brain seems to trigger emotional reactions such as the "fight or flight" response.

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Emotions can effect learning by

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Changing brain dopamine levels that influence long-term memory and by directing attention toward one aspect of the situation.

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Arousal

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Physical and psychological reactions causing a person to be alert, attentive, wide awake.

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Anxiety

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General uneasiness, a feeling of tension.

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Anxiety interferes with learning and test performance at 3 points:

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1. Focusing attention. 2. Learning. 3. Testing.

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When students face stressful situations such as tests, they can use 3 kinds of coping strategies:

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1. Problem-focused self-regulating learning strategies. 2. Emotional management. 3. Avoidance.

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Problem-focused self-regulating learning strategies

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Include planning a study schedule, borrowing good notes, or finding a protected place to study.

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Emotional management strategies

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Attempts to reduce the anxious feelings, for example, by using relaxation exercises or describing the feelings to a friend.

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Avoidance strategies

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Include avoiding studying or homework by finding another project.

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Motivate to learn

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A students' tendency to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to benefit from them.

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Teachers have 3 major goals to get students motivated to learn:

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1. To get students productively involved with the work of the class; to catch their interest and to create a state of motivation to learn. 2. The longer-term goal of developing in students enduring individual interests and the trait of being motivated to learn so they will be able to educate themselves for the rest of their lives. 3. For the students to be cognitively engaged - to think deeply about what they study / to be thoughtful.

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TARGET: Identifying 6 areas where teachers make decisions that can influence student motivation to learn:

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T: Task that students are asked to do. A: Autonomy or authority students are allowed in working. R: Recognition for accomplishments. G: Grouping practices. E: Evaluation procedures. T: Time in the classroom.

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Academic tasks

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The work the student must accomplish, including the content covered and the mental operations required.

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Task value has 4 components

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1. Importance. 2. Interest. 3. Utility. 4. Cost.

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Importance/Attainment value

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The importance of doing well on a task; how success on the task meets personal needs.

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Interest or intrinsic value

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The enjoyment a person gets from a task.

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Utility value

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The contribution of a task to meeting one's goals.

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Costs of tasks

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Negative consequences that might follow from doing the task such as not having time to do other things or looking awkward as your perform the task.

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Authentic task

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Tasks that have some connection to real-life problems the students will face outside the classroom.

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Problem-based learning

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Methods that provide students with realistic problems that don't necessarily have right answers.

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Bounded choice

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Giving students a range of options that set valuable tasks for them, but also allow them to follow personal interests.

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Cognitive autonomy support

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Giving students opportunities to discuss different cognitive strategies for learning, approaches to solving problems, or positions on an issue. * The most important kind of autonomy support teachers can provide students.

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Goal structure

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The way students relate to others who are also working toward a particular goal.

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There are 3 goal structures:

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1. Cooperative. 2. Competitive. 3. Individualistic.

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Cooperative goal structure

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Students believe their goal is attainable only if other students will also reach the goal. Best when task involves complex learning and problem-solving skills.

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Competitive goal structure

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Students believe they will reach their goal if and only if other students do not reach the goal.

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Individualistic goal structure

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Students believe that their own attempt to reach a goal is not related to other students' attempts to reach the goal.

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DEAR time

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Drop Everything And Read

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Block scheduling

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Teachers work in teams to plan larger blocks of class time

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4 basic conditions that must be met for every student and in every classroom in order for motivational strategies to succeed:

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1. The classroom must be relatively organized and free from constant interruptions and disruptions. 2. The teacher must be a patient, supportive person who never embarrasses the students because they made mistakes. 3. The work must be challenging, but reasonable. 4. The learning tasks must be authentic.

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To ensure genuine progress

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1. Begin work at the students' level and move in small steps. 2. Make sure learning goals are clear, specific, and possible to reach in the near future. 3. Stress self-comparison, not comparison with others. 4. Communicate to students that academic ability is improvable. 5. Model good problem solving.

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