question

Rational choice

answer

the view that crime is a function of a decision-making process in which the potential offender weighs the potential costs and benefits of an illegal action

question

Enlightenment

answer

An elite cultural movement of intellectuals in the 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted science and intellectual interchange and opposed superstition

question

Marginal deterrence

answer

The idea that if petty offenses were subject to the same punishment as more serious crimes, offenders would choose the worse crime because the resulting punishment would be the same

question

Classical criminology

answer

The theoretical perspective suggesting that 1) people have free will to choose criminal or conventional behaviors; 2) people choose to commit crimes for reasons of greed or personal need; and 3) crime can only be controlled by the fear of criminal sanctions

question

Reasoning criminal

answer

the individual who, before choosing to commit a crime, evaluates the risk of apprehension, the seriousness of the expected punishment, the potential value of the criminal enterprise, and his or her immediate need for criminal gain

question

Offense-specific crime

answer

offenders react selectively to the characteristics of particular offenses

question

Offender-specific crime

answer

before deciding to commit crime, individuals determine whether they have the perquisites to commit a successful criminal act, including the proper skills, motives, needs, and fears

question

Criminality

answer

the state of being a criminal; a criminal act or practice

question

Boosters

answer

professional shoplifters who use complex methods to avoid detection

question

Permeable neighborhood

answer

neighborhood with a greater than usual number of access streets from traffic arteries into the neighborhood

question

Edgework

answer

The exhilarating, momentary integration of danger, risk, and skill that motivates people to try a variety of dangerous criminal and noncriminal behaviors

question

Situational crime prevention

answer

the perspective that crime prevention can be achieved by reducing opportunities people have to commit crimes

question

Defensible space

answer

the term that signifies that crime can be prevented or displaced through the use of residential architectural designs that reduce criminal opportunity

question

Crime discourages

answer

those who manage crime, namely guardians (who monitor targets), handlers (who monitory offenders), and managers (who monitor places)

question

Diffusion of benefits

answer

the process whereby efforts to prevent one crime unintentionally prevent another and when control efforts in one locale reduce crime in other non-targeted areas

question

Discouragement

answer

the process whereby crime efforts targeting a particular locale help reduce crime in surrounding areas and populations

question

Crime displacement

answer

an effect of crime prevention efforts in which efforts to control crime in one area shift illegal activities to another

question

General deterrence

answer

the concept that crime rates are influenced and controlled by the threat of criminal punishment

question

Deterrence theory

answer

a sub-branch of choice theory that suggests a choice is structured by the fear of punishment

question

Crackdowns

answer

sudden changes in police activity designed to increase the communicated threat or actual certainty of punishment

question

Informal sanctions

answer

sanctions or consequences administered by people or organizations that are not associated with the criminal justice system

question

Specific deterrence

answer

the perspective that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that known criminals will never repeat their criminal acts

question

Incapacitation effect

answer

placing offenders behind bars during their prime crime years should lessen their lifetime opportunity to commit crime

question

Just deserts

answer

Punishment is needed to preserved the social equity disturbed by crime

question

Blameworthy

answer

an aspect of desert theory that is concerned with the rights of the accused; an offender should not be treated as more or less responsible or culpable than is warranted by the character of his or her offense

question

Positivism

answer

the branch of social science that uses the scientific method of natural sciences that suggests that human behavior is a product of social, biological, psychological, or economic forces

question

Psychopathic personality

answer

a personality characterized by a lack of warmth and feeling inappropriate behavior responses, and an inability to learn from experience. Some psychologists view psychopath as result of childhood trauma; others see it as a result of biological abnormality

question

Atavistic anomalies

answer

the physical characteristics (enormous jaws and strong canine teeth) or criminals that show they are throwbacks to more primitive times

question

Biological determinism

answer

the view that criminality is a result of inherited physical traits; a belief that criminogenic traits can be acquired through indirect heredity from a degenerate family whose members suffered from such ills as insanity, syphilis, and alcoholism, or through direct heredity-being related to a family of criminals

question

Criminal anthropology

answer

the field of study that believes that serious offenders inherit criminal traits; early efforts to discover a biological basis of crime through measurement of physical and mental processes

question

Inheritance school

answer

traced the activities of several generations of families believed to have an especially large number of criminal members

question

Somatotype

answer

a system developed for categorizing people on the basis of their body build

question

Biosocial theory

answer

an integrated theoretical approach that suggests physical, enviromental, and social conditions work in concrete to produce human behavior

question

Biophobia

answer

the view that no serious consideration should be given to biological factors when attempting to understand human nature

question

Sociobiology

answer

stresses that biological and genetic conditions affect how social behaviors are learned and perceived

question

Reciprocal altruism

answer

even when people come to aid of others, people are motivated by the belief that their actions will be reciprocated and that their gene survival capability will enhanced

question

Trait theory

answer

Biological (genetic) makeup control human behavior, it follows that it should also be responsible for determining whether a person chooses law-violating or conventional behaviors

question

Equipotentiality

answer

view that all individuals are equal at birth and are thereafter influenced by their environment

question

Hypoglycemia

answer

occurs when glucose in the blood falls below levels necessary for normal and efficient functioning

question

Androgens

answer

male sex hormones that produce aggressive behavior

question

Testosterone

answer

the most abundant androgen and principal male steroid hormone that controls secondary sex characteristics as facial hair and voice timbre

question

Neocortex

answer

the part of the brain that control sympathetic feelings toward others

question

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

answer

the onset the menstrual cycle triggers excessive amounts of the female sex hormones that affect antisocial, aggressive behavior

question

Cerebral allergies

answer

allergies cause an excessive reaction in the brain

question

Neurophysiology

answer

the study of brain activity

question

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

answer

records the electrical impulses given off by the brain

question

Minimal brain dysfunction (MBD)

answer

an abruptly appearing, maladaptive behavior that interrupts an individual's lifestyle and life flow that is related to an abnormality in the cerebral structure

question

Learning disability

answer

a type of minimal brain dysfunction in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using spoken or written languages

question

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

answer

a conditions in which a child shows a developmentally inappropriate lack of attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity

question

Conduct disorder (CD)

answer

behavior such as fighting that are early signs that the child is among the most at risk of persistent antisocial behaviors continuing into adulthood

question

Chemical restrains or chemical straightjackets

answer

antipsychotic drugs such as Haldol, Stelzine, Prolixin, and Risperdal that help control levels of neurotransmitters (such as serotonin and dopamine)

question

Arousal theory

answer

for a variety of genetic and environmental reasons, some people's brains function differently in response to environmental stimuli

question

Contagion effect

answer

it is possible that what appears to be a genetic effect picked up by the twin research is actually the effect of sibling influence on criminality

question

Defective Intelligence

answer

Charles Goring uncovered a significant relationship between crime and traits as feeblemindedness, epilepsy, insanity, and defective social instinct

question

Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic perspective

answer

focus is on early childhood experiences and its effect on personality

question

Behaviorism

answer

stresses social learning and behavior modeling as the keys to criminality

question

Cognitive Theory

answer

analyzes human perception and how it affects behavior

question

Id

answer

The primitive part of an individual's mental makeup present at birth; it represents unconscious biological drives for sex, food, and other life-sustaining necessities

question

Pleasure principle

answer

the id requires instant gratification without concern for the rights of others

question

Ego

answer

the part of the personality that compensates for the demands of the id by helping the individual guide his or her actions to remain within the boundaries of social convention

question

Reality principle

answer

ego takes into account what is practical and conventional by societal standards

question

Superego

answer

develops as a result of incorporating within the personality the moral standards and values of parents, community, and significant others. It is the moral aspect of an individual's personality; it passes judgement on behavior

question

Conscience

answer

one the two parts of superego; it distinguishes between what is right and wrong

question

Ego Ideal

answer

The second part of the superego; directs the individual into morally acceptable and responsible behaviors that may or may not be pleasurable

question

Eros

answer

The instinct to preserve and create life

question

Thanatos

answer

the death instinct, which is expressed as aggression

question

Oral stage

answer

the first of Freud's stages, it is the first year of life in which a child attains pleasure by sucking or biting

question

Anal stage

answer

the second of Freud's stages,it is the second and third years of life in which the focus of sexual attention is on the elimination of bodily wastes

question

Phallic stage

answer

the third of Freud's stages, it is the third year of life in which the focus of their attention on their genitals

question

Oedipus complex

answer

a stage of development when males begin to have sexual feelings for their mothers

question

Electra complex

answer

A stage of development when females begin to have sexual feelings for their fathers

question

Latency

answer

begins at the age of 6; during this period feeling of sexuality are repressed until the genital stage begins at puberty

question

Fixated

answer

an adult who exhibits behavior traits characteristic of those encountered during infantile sexual development

question

Inferiority complex

answer

coined by Alfred Alder, it describes people who have feelings of inferiority and compensate for them with a drive for superiority

question

Identity crisis

answer

a period of serious personal questioning, people undertake in an effort to determine their own values and sense of direction

question

latent delinquency

answer

a predisposition that psychologically prepares youths for antisocial acts

question

Bipolar disorder

answer

a condition in which a person's moods alternate between periods of wild elation and deep depression

question

Attachment theory

answer

a view, associated with psychologist John Bowlby, that suggests that ability to form attachments, that is an emotional bond to another person, has important lasting psychological implications that follow people across the lifespan

question

Alexithmia

answer

a deficit in emotional cognition that prevents a person from being aware of their feelings or being able to understand or talk about their thoughts or emotions; they seem robotic and emotionally dead

question

Psychosis

answer

includes severe mental disorders, such as depression, bipolar disorder (manic depression), and schizophrenia

question

Disorders

answer

the condition in which a person exhibits illogical and incoherent thought processes and a lack of insight into their behavior

question

Schizophrenia

answer

the conditions in which a person may here nonexistent voices, hallucinate, and make inappropriate behavioral responses

question

Paranoid schizophrenic

answer

suffers complex behavior delusions involving wrongdoing or persecution; they think everyone is out to get them

question

Social learning

answer

the branch of behavior theory that proposes that people are not actually born with the ability to act violently but that they learn to be aggressive through their life experiences

question

Behavior modeling

answer

a process of learning behavior by observing others; the models may be parents, criminals in the neighborhood, or characters on television or in the movies

question

Moral development

answer

Concerned with the way people morally represent and reason about the world

question

Humanistic psychology

answer

stresses self-awareness and "getting in tough with feelings"

question

Informative processing

answer

focuses on the way people process, store, encode, retrieve, and manipulate information to make decisions and solve problems

question

Personality

answer

the reasonably stable patterns of behavior, including thoughts and emotions that distinguish one person from another

question

Sadistic personality disorder

answer

an extreme personality disorder defined by a repeat pattern of cruel and demeaning behavior. People suffering from sadistic personality disorder are prone to engage in serious violent attacks including homicides motivated by sexual sadism.

question

Psychopath

answer

a term commonly used to describe people who have an anti-social personality. While used interchangeably with the term sociopath, psychologists distinguishes a psychopath as someone who is a product of defect or aberration within themselves

question

Sociopath

answer

a term commonly used to describe people who have an anti-social personality. While used interchangeably with the term psychopath, psychologist distinguish a sociopath as someone who is a product of a destructive home environment

question

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

answer

the test that has sub-scales designed to measure many different personality traits, including psychopathic deviation (Pd scale), schizophrenia (Sc), and hypomania (Ma).

question

California Personality Inventory (CPI)

answer

has been used to distinguish deviants from non-deviant groups

question

Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ)

answer

allows researchers to assess such personality traits as control, aggression, alienation, and well-being

question

Intelligence

answer

a term that refers to a person ability to reason, comprehend ideas, solve problems, think abstractly, understand complex ideas, learn from the experience, and disorder solutions to complex problems

question

Nature theory

answer

a theory that argues intelligence is largely determined genetically, that ancestry determines IQ, and that low intelligence, as demonstrated by low IQ, is linked to criminal behavior

question

Nurture theory

answer

a theory that argued that intelligence must be viewed as partly biological by primarily sociological and that low IQs result from an environment that also encourages delinquent and criminal behavior

question

Primary prevention programs

answer

programs that seek to treat personal problems before they manifest themselves as crime

question

secondary prevention programs

answer

provide treatment such as psychological counseling to youths and adults after they have violated the law

question

Tertiary prevention programs

answer

prevention programs that are required by a probation order, part of a diversionary sentence, or associated with aftercare following a prison sentence

question

Stratified society

answer

grouping according to social strata or levels. American society is considered stratified on the basis of economic class and wealth

question

Culture of poverty

answer

the view that people in the lower class of society form a separate culture with conventional society; the culture is a self-maintaining and ongoing

question

At-risk

answer

a quality in which an individual may have a higher likelihood of experiencing something negative

question

Underclass

answer

the lowest social stratum in any country, whose members lack the education and skills needed to function successfully in modern society

question

Social structure theory

answer

the view that disadvantaged economic class position is a primary cause of crime

question

Social disorganization theory

answer

branch of social structure theory that focuses on the breakdown of institutions such as the family, school, and employment in inner-city neighborhoods

question

Strain theory

answer

branch of social structure theory that sees crime as a function of the conflict between people's goals and the means available to obtain them

question

Strain

answer

the emotional turmoil and conflict causes when people believe they cannot achieve their desires and goals through legitimate means

question

Cultural deviance theory

answer

branch of social structure theory that sees strain and social disorganization together resulting in a unique lower-class culture that conflicts with conventional social norms

question

Subcultures

answer

groups that maintain a unique set of values and beliefs that are in conflict with conventional social norms

question

Cultural transmission

answer

the concept that conduct norms are passed down from one generation to the next so that they become stable within the boundaries of a culture. Culture transmission guarantees that group lifestyle and behavior are stable and predictable.

question

Truly disadvantaged

answer

Wilson's term for the lowest level of underclass; Urban, inner-city, socially isolated people who occupy the bottom rung of the social ladder and are the victims of discrimination

question

Transitional neighborhoods

answer

an area undergoing a shift in population and structure, usually from middle-class residential to lower-class mixed use; a poverty-ridden neighborhood that suffers high rates of population turnover and are incapable to induce residents to remain and defend the neighborhoods against criminal groups.

question

Concentration effect

answer

the most disadvantaged population is consolidated in the most disorganized urban neighborhoods

question

Incivilities

answer

rude and uncivil behavior, heavier that indicates little caring for the feelings of others

question

Siege mentality

answer

the idea that the outside world is considered the enemy out to destroy the neighborhood

question

Gentrification

answer

a residential renew stage in which obsolete housing is replaced and upgraded; areas undergoing such change seem to experience an increase in their criminal rates

question

Collective efficiency

answer

mutual trust, a willingness to intervene in the supervision of children, and the maintenance of public order

question

street efficacy

answer

a concept describing youth in stable areas where collective efficacy is high. These youths use their wits to avoid violent confrontations and feel safe in their own neighborhood. Adolescents with high levels of street efficacy are less likely to resort to violence or to associate with delinquent peers

question

Relative deprivation

answer

a collective sense of social injustice directly related to income inequality tends to develop in communities or nations in which the poor and wealthy live in close proximity to each other

question

Anomie

answer

a condition produced by normlessness -- the individual has few guides to that what is socially acceptable. According to Merton, anomie is a condition that occurs when personal goals cannot be achieved by available means. In Agnew's revision, anomie can occur when positive or valued stimuli are removed or negative or painful ones applied

question

mechanical solidarity

answer

characteristic of preindustrial society that is held together by traditions, shared values, and unquestioned beliefs

question

Organic solidarity

answer

in posindustrial social systems, which are highly developed and dependent upon the division of labor, people are connected by their interdependent needs for another's services and production

question

Theory of anomie

answer

two elements of culture interact to produce potentially anomic conditions; culturally defined goals and socially approved means of obtaining them

question

Institutional anomic theory

answer

the view that anomie pervades U.S. culture because the drive for material wealth dominates and undermines social and community values

question

American Dream

answer

the goal of accumulating material goods and wealth through individual competition; the process of being socialized to pursue material success and to believe it is achievable

question

General Strain Theory (GST)

answer

the view that multiple sources of strain interact with an individual's emotional traits and responses to produce criminality

question

Negative affective states

answer

the anger, frustration, and adverse emotions that emerge in the wake of negative and destructive social relationships

question

Conduct norms

answer

the concept that the lower class develops a unique culture in response to strain

question

Culture conflict

answer

occurs when the rules expressed in the criminal law clash with the demands of conduct norms

question

Focal concerns

answer

the unique value system that defines lower-class culture

question

Status frustration

answer

a form of culture conflict that lower-class youths experience because social conditions make them incapable of achieving success legitimately

question

Middle-class measuring rods

answer

the standards set by authority figures such as teachers, employers, or supervisors

question

Corner boy

answer

the most common response to middle-class rejection; he is not a chronic delinquent by may a truant who engages in petty or status offenses, such as a precocious sex and recreation drug use

question

College boy

answer

embraces the cultural and social values of the middle class; rather than scorning the middle-class measuring rods, he actively strives to be successful by those standards. This type of youth is embarking on an almost hopeless path, since he is ill-equipped academically, socially, and linguistically to achieve the rewards of middle-class life

question

Delinquent boy

answer

adopts a set of norms and principles in direct opposition to middle-class values; he engages in short-run hedonism, living for today and letting "tomorrow take care of itself"

question

Recreation formation

answer

frustrated by their inability to succeed, those boys resort to overly intense responses that seem disproportionate to the stimuli that trigger them

question

Differential opportunity

answer

people in all strata of society share the same success goals but that those in the lower-class have limited means of achieving them; those who conclude that there is little hope for advancement by legitimate means may join like-minded peers to form a gang

question

To say that crime is _____ means that before deciding to commit crime, offender must decide whether they have the prerequisites (skills, need, physical ability) to commit a successful act

answer

offender specific

question

Criminal decision making is not only based on an assessment of personal needs and capabilities, but also on a rational assessment of the _____

answer

criminal event

question

____ refers to the use of residential architectural designs that reduce criminal activity

answer

defensible space

question

A program that seems successful because it helps lower crime rate at specific locations or neighborhoods may simply be redirecting offenders to alternative targets; this is known as _____

answer

displacement

question

The idea that the certainty of punishment will only have a deterrent effect if the likelihood of getting caught reaches a critical level is known as the _____

answer

tipping point

question

_____ theory suggests that punishment is needed to preserve the social equity disturbed by crime -- those who violate other's rights deserve to be punished

answer

Just desserts

question

(T/F) specific deterrence refers to the concept that criminal sanctions should be so powerful that known criminals will never repeat their criminal acts

answer

True

question

(T/F) some may be immune to deterrent effects because they believe the profits from crime are worth the risk of punishment

answer

False

question

Crime prevention can be achieved by reducing the opportunities people have to commit particular crimes, practice known as _____

answer

Situational crime prevention

question

Which type of crime discourages monitor potential offenders?

answer

Handlers

question

_____ is the phenomenon in which crime reduction programs may produce a short-term positive effect, but in which benefits dissipate as criminals adjust to new conditions

answer

Extinction

question

The _____ model suggest that retribution justifies punishment because people ought to be punished for past deeds

answer

Just deserts

question

The adrenaline rush that comes from successfully executing illegal activities in dangerous situations is known as _____

answer

Edgework

question

_____ is when crime reduction programs may boomerang and increase rather than decrease the potentiality of a crime

answer

Encouragement

question

______ is the idea that if petty offenses were subject to the same punishment as more serious crimes, offenders would choose the worse crime because the resulting punishment would be the same

answer

Marginal deterrence

question

______ is when criminal sanctions are so powerful that known criminals will never repeat their criminal acts

answer

Specific deterrence

question

The _____ school held that criminals possessed distinct physiques that made them susceptible to a particular types of delinquent behavior

answer

Somatotype

question

The concept that all humans are born with equal potential to learn and achieve is ______

answer

equipotentinality

question

many people with ADHD also suffer from _____ and continually engage in aggressive and antisocial behavior in early childhood

answer

conduct disorders

question

Psychologists with a _____ perspective focus on mental processes and how people perceive and mentally represent the world around them and how they solve problems

answer

cognitive

question

Social learning theorists believe aggressive acts are modeled after three principal sources: family interactions, environmental experiences, and the _____

answer

mass media

question

(T/F) minimal brain dysfunction is related to an abnormality in the cerebral structure

answer

True

question

(T/F) cognitive theory analyzes human perception and how it affects behavior

answer

True

question

(T/F) The IQ-crime link has been found in cross-national studies conducted in a number of different countries

answer

True

question

According to the somatotype school, the person with well-developed muscles, and an athletic appearance is an ____ and is most likely to become a criminal

answer

ectomorph

question

_____ theory holds that, for a variety of genetic and environmental reasons, some people's brain function differently in response to environmental stimuli.

answer

Arousal

question

Disruptive behavior disorder can take on two distinct forms. The form that involves uncooperative, defiant, and hostile behavior towards authority figures that seriously interferes with a youngster's day-to-day function is called _______

answer

Conduct disorder (CD)

question

What percentage of chronic offenders exhibit sociopathic behavior patterns

answer

80%

question

_____ are created by unequal distributions of wealth, power, and prestige.

answer

Social strata's

question

Sociologists Oscar Lewis argued that the crushing lifestyle of lower-class areas produces a ______ which is passed from one generation to the next

answer

culture of poverty

question

According to social disorganization theory a ______ area is one which institutions of social control have broken down and can no longer carry out their expected or stated function

answer

disorganized

question

Cultural deviance theory holds that subcultural values are handed down from one generation to the next in a process call _____

answer

cultural transmission

question

______ holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they can use to obtain them legally

answer

strain theory

question

______ is mutual trust, a willingness to intervene in the supervision of children, and the maintenance of public order

answer

Collect efficiency

question

Anomie is most likely to occur in societies moving from a preindustrial to a postindustrial society, _____ is a characteristic of preindustrial societies, which are held together by traditions, shared values, and unquestioned beliefs

answer

Mechanical solidarity

question

Messner and Rosenfeld agree with Merton's view that the goal of success is pervasive in American culture. Their model of antisocial behavior, as a function of pursuing the American Dream is called ________ theory

answer

institutional anomie

question

______ theory combines the effects of social disorganization and strain to explain how people living in deteriorated neighborhoods react to social isolation and economic deprivation

answer

Cultural deviance

question

_______ comprise the unique value system that defines lower class culture

answer

Focal concerns

question

(T/F) Shaw and McKay's research found that the highest crime raters were always found is Zones 4 and 5

answer

False

question

(T/F) Siege mentality is a term that refers to the rich considering the poor as their enemy out to destroy the neighborhood

answer

False

question

(T/F) School, churches, and volunteer groups comprise the informal social control category of collective efficacy

answer

False

question

(T/F) Merton's ideas about anomic societies were applied to criminology by sociologists Emile Durkheim

answer

False

question

(T/F) Because social conditions make them incapable of achieving success legitimately, lower-class youth experiences a form of culture conflict Chohen labels status frustration

answer

True

question

Even though crime rates change, Shaw and McKay found that the highest rates were always in ________

answer

Zones 1 and 2

question

Agnew's general strain theory suggests that criminality is the direct result of ________

answer

negative affective states

question

The elements of general strain theory DOES NOT include ______

answer

belonging to the lower-class

question

_____ is NOT one of Miller's lower class focal concerns

answer

Achievement

question

The _____ focal concerns involve being independent of authority figures, such as the police, teachers, and parents

answer

autonomy

question

According to Durkheim, an anomic society is one in which _________________

answer

rules of behavior have broken down during periods of rapid social change or crisis

question

According to Merton, _____ occurs when an individual accepts the goals of society but reject or is incapable of attaining them through legitimate means

answer

innovation

question

Gangs that develop in communities unable to provide either legitimate or illegitimate opportunities are known as ______

answer

conflict gangs

question

______ is a collective sense of social injustice directly related to income inequality that tends to develop in communities or nations in which the poor and wealthy live in close proximity to each other

answer

Relative deprivation

question

A ______ is created by the unequal distribution wealth, power, and prestige

answer

stratified society

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