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Specific Learning Disorder (DSM-5)

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A. Difficulty in learning and using academic skills, characterized by problems in one or more: 1. Word reading 2. Reading comprehension 3. Spelling 4. Written expression 5. Number facts or calculation 6. Mathematical reasoning/applied problems B. Skills are quantifiably below level expected for age C. Onset in childhood D. Not explained by Intellectual Disability, sensory disability, psychosocial adversity, or low quality education

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Severity of Specific Learning Disorder (DSM-5)

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In DSM-5, severity is based on the degree to which the child's learning disorder can be overcome or compensated by specialized instruction

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Dyslexia

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Not an official DSM-5 diagnosis; a term used to describe deficits in word reading and reading fluency (but not necessarily comprehension)

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Dyscalculia

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Not an official DSM-5 diagnosis; a term used to describe deficits in number facts, math calculation skills, and math fluency (but not necessarily math reasoning/applied problems)

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Learning disabilities

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Not a DSM-5 disorder; a term first used by Samuel Kirk (1962) who showed significant delays in reading, writing, math, or oral language caused by structural abnormalities in the brain

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Specific learning disabilities

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A disorder in the psychological processes in understanding or using language which manifests itself as an inability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, or do math calculations; does not include learning problems due to sensory impairments, intellectual disability, or economic disadvantage (US Department of Education, 1977)

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA, 2004)

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A federal law that provides special education services for children with specific learning disabilities; children can receive services for problems in any of the following areas: 1. Oral expression 2. Listening comprehension 3. Basic reading skills 4. Reading fluency skills 5. Reading comprehension 6. Math calculation 7. Math problem solving 8. Written expression

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Differences between Specific Learning Disorder (DSM-5) and Specific Learning Disability (IDEA)

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1. DSM-5 allows children to be diagnosed with Specific Learning Disorder due to spelling deficits; spelling is not included in IDEA 2. IDEA allows children to be diagnosed with Specific Learning Disability due to problems with oral expression and listening comprehension; problems in these areas would be classified as communication disorders in DSM-5

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Methods to identify specific learning disabilities

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(1) IQ-achievement discrepancy (2) Response to intervention (3) Comprehensive assessment

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IQ-achievement discrepancy method

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A method of LD identification; children show significantly lower academic achievement than intellectual ability; reflects the notion of "unexpected underachievement", not a valid method for identifying LDs

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Problems with the IQ-achievement discrepancy method

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(1) The method does not reliably differentiate children with and without serious learning problems (2) Children with and without discrepancies do not show different brain structures or functioning (3) Children with and without discrepancies do not show different cognitive abilities (4) Children with and without discrepancies show similar response to treatment and outcomes

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Response to intervention (RTI)

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A method of LD identification that relies largely on teacher observation and curriculum-based assessment; children who fail to respond to increasingly more intensive, high-quality instruction can be classified with LDs

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Curriculum-based assessment

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A method of measuring children's academic skills in the classroom; children's skills are evaluated in terms of how well they meet the school's learning goals

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Three tiers of RIT

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Tier I: Primary (universal) prevention Tier II: Secondary (small group) intervention Tier III: Individual, intensive intervention

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Limitations of RIT

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(1) There is no consensus on how RIT should be implemented (2) There is no consensus as to what constitutes "scientific, research-based teaching" (3) RTI might not reduce the number of children in special education classes (4) RTI might not identify children with LD early and prevent the emergence of more serious problems

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Comprehensive assessment

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A method of LD identification that involves integrating classroom observational data with norm-referenced tests of academic achievement and cognitive processing; assumes that LDs are caused by underlying cognitive processing problems

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Comprehensive assessment model

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(1) Identify children who do not respond to instruction using traditional RTI (2) Test for low (<85) academic achievement (3) Test for low (<85) cognitive processing that might explain achievement problem (4) Make sure that child's overall intellectual abilities are average (5) Make sure the child's academic problems are not caused by cultural/language differences, low SES, or poor quality education

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Secondary reaction theory

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A theory used to explain the high prevalence of anxiety disorders among children with LD; it posits that children's learning problems cause increased school- and academic-related anxiety

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School failure hypothesis

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A theory used to explain the increased likelihood of children with LDs to develop conduct problems; it posits that children with LDs do poorly in school and associate with deviant peers, these deviant peers in turn introduce them to antisocial behavior

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Susceptibility hypothesis

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A theory used to explain the increased likelihood of children with LDs to develop conduct problems; it posits that children with LDs often have other personality attributes (e.g., hyperactivity, impulsivity) that places them at risk for conduct problems

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Phonemes

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The smallest units of spoken language (e.g., the /s/ sound)

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Phonemic awareness

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Children's recognition that spoken language can be broken down into a series of sounds and that sounds can be combined to generate spoken language; an important skill for reading

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Graphemes

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The units of written language that represent phonemes (e.g., the letter "s" represents the phoneme /s/)

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Phonics

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The correspondence between letters (graphemes) and sounds (phonemes)

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Direct instruction

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The systematic presentation and practice of basic skills in highly structured settings; complex skills are broken down into their component parts, each part is modeled, practices, and reinforced until mastered

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Methods to teach phonemic awareness

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(1) Recognize individual sounds in words (2) Recognize common sounds in different words (3) Identify the phoneme that does not belong (4) Blend phonemes together (5) Break words into sounds by counting phonemes (6) Say the word that remains when a phoneme is deleted Letter/sound correspondence game

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Left fusiform gyrus

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Brain area that allows us to read rapidly and accurately (i.e., with fluency); especially important to the recognition of common "sight words"

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Wernicke's area

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Located in the left temporal-parietal lobe, it allows us to phonetically decode (i.e., "sound out") novel words

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Broca's area

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Located in the left inferior frontal lobe, it allows us to interpret the meaning of words in the context of a sentence

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National Reading Panel (NRP)

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A committee of experts commissioned by the National Institute for Child Health and Human Development to determine the most effective methods of reading instruction

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Whole language instruction

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An approach to reading instruction that is based on the notion that learning to read is a natural process that occurs through continued exposure to spoken and written language; has limited empirical support

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Whole word instruction

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An approach to reading instruction that emphasizes the technique of presenting children with novel words in the context of stories rather than teaching phonetic decoding skills; children gain knowledge of novel words by relying on contextual cues and leveled texts

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Leveled texts

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Short books that are ordered according to the difficulty of vocabulary, repetition, inclusion of novel words, use of picture/contextual cues, and sentence complexity; children advanced to more complex levels as their sign word recognition increases

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Reading Recovery

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A whole word method of reading instruction that relies on leveled text and context cues to teach reading

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Reading fluency

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The ability to read rapidly, accurately, and with proper expression

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Reading comprehension

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The ability to read text for meaning, to remember information from the text, and to use information from the text to solve problems or share with others

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Cognitive processing problems associated with reading disabilities

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Deficits in (1) Phonemic awareness (2) Processing speed (3) Working memory (4) Rapid automatized naming

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Processing speed

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Cognitive efficiency; the ability to quickly and accurately perform relatively simple cognitive tasks without expending a high degree of effort; examples include: (1) scan a visual array and identify and object (2) match objects (3) make simple decisions

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Working memory

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The ability to simultaneously hold and manipulate multiple pieces of information in memory to solve problems; can be either verbal or nonverbal/performance based

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Rapid automatized naming (RAN)

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The ability to recall the names of a series of familiar objects (usually within the same category) as quickly and accurately as possible (e.g., name as many foods as possible in one minute)

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Double-deficit model

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Developed by Wolf and Bowers, this model posits that children can have deficits in: (1) word reading (caused by poor phonemic awareness) (2) reading fluency (caused by deficits in processing speed, working memory, or RAN), or (3) word reading & fluency problems

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Matthew effect

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Term used by Keith Stanovich to describe the tendency of good early readers to develop strong reading skills and poor early readers to fall further behind their peers; based on Matthew 25:29, "To everyone who has, more will be given; but, from the one who has little, even what he has will be taken away."

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Guided oral reading

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An effective intervention to improve reading fluency; children read texts aloud and teachers monitor and correct mistakes

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Independent silent reading

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An intervention to improve reading fluency with limited evidence supporting its effectiveness; children read silently each day (e.g., sustained silent reading, drop everything and read)

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RAVE-O (Retrieval, Automaticity, Vocabulary, Elaboration, & Orthography)

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An intervention for children with good word reading skills but poor reading fluency; consists of training in: (1) automaticity (2) semantic facilitation (3) lexical retrieval

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Automaticity

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A primary goal of RAVE-O; the ability to identify words quickly and with little effort

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Semantic facilitation

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A secondary goal of RAVE-O; the child's reading vocabulary (increased vocabulary should increase reading fluency)

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Lexical retrieval

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A tertiary goal of RAVE-O; the child's ability to recall words quickly and easily (impaired because of deficits in RAN)

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Story grammar

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Knowledge of the components and structure of stories such as characters, settings, problems to be solved, actions, and resolutions; children with comprehension problems often show deficits in this knowledge

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Narrative text comprehension intervention

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A treatment for reading comprehension problems; children are systematically taught to recognize and recall information about story grammar (e.g., characters, setting, actions)

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Expository text

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Text designed to convey facts or information; often uses complex vocabulary, novel words, and unfamiliar text structure and can be difficult for children with reading comprehension problems

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Text enhancements

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Visual aids or routines that assist students in identifying, organizing, understanding, and recalling information, especially from expository texts (e.g., textbooks)

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Commonly used text enhancements

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(1) Graphic organizers (diagrams, figures) (2) Cognitive maps (flowcharts) (3) Semantic mapping (hierarchies, outlines) (4) Visual displays (timelines) (5) Mnemonics (memory aids) (6) Computer-assisted instruction (hypermedia)

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Steps in written expression

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Children with writing disorders often show problems in one or more of these areas: (1) Planning (2) Translating (3) Reviewing

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Planning

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The first step in writing; identify one's goals, generate as much information about the topic and possible, organize one's thoughts; children with writing disorders often neglect this step

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Translation

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The second step in writing; transcribing one's thoughts onto paper or computer; children with writing disorders often transcribe slowly, make many errors in spelling, and do not attend to coherence of each paragraph

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Reviewing

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The third step in writing; rereading and editing one's draft, including whether individual sentences are complete and descriptive and whether paragraphs are organized and logically flow; children with writing disorders often do not review and edit or focus only on superficial aspects of their writing

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Common writing problems in older children

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Children show problem in: (1) Productivity (small number of words) (2) Lexical diversity (less varied vocabulary) (3) Grammar (4) Sentence complexity (5) Spelling accuracy (7) Story content (structure, tone, conventions)

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Self-regulated strategy development (SRSD)

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A cognitive strategy instruction designed in which teachers introduce, model, and then guide children through the writing process: (1) Activate background knowledge (2) Discuss strategy for writing (3) Model the strategy (4) Memorize the strategy (5) Support the strategy (scaffolding) (6) Independent performance by students

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POWER

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A strategy to improve creative writing used in SRSD: Plan the story Organize your thoughts Write and think aloud Edit your work Revise the story to make it better

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DEFENDS

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A strategy to improve expository writing used in SRSD: Decide on your position Examine reasons to support your position Form a list of points to support your position Expose your position in the first paragraph Note each reason and supporting points Drive home main point in the last paragraph

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Handwriting instruction

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A technique to help children write automatically and legibly: (1) alphabet warm up (letter identification) (2) alphabet practice (letter writing practice) (3) alphabet rocket (copy words/sentences rapidly) (4) alphabet fun (writing letters in creative ways)

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Spelling instruction

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A technique to help children improve spelling skills: (1) Students learn to spell frequently occurring words (2) Students learn to spell novel words by analogy (3) Students proofread others' spelling and correct errors

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Numerosity

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The understanding that a group of stimuli can be understood in terms of their number; allows children to mentally represent quantities (i.e., three items = "3"); Wynn (1922) showed it exists in 5-month-olds

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Number sets test

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A brief test of numerosity in which children must identify similar numerals (i.e., 2, 4) and sets of objects (i.e., two dots, four triangles); predicts later math skills

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Number line test

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A brief test of number sense in which children must place numbers on a physical number line; children later diagnosed with math disabilities often do not place numbers with equal spacing

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Defective number module hypothesis

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A hypothesis used to explain problems with numerosity shown by some children with math disabilities; it posits that abnormal functioning of the right intraparietal sulci (IPS) underlies problems with early numerosity and later numerical processing and math calculations

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Rules of counting

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(1) One-t0-one correspondence (2) Stable order (3) Cardinality (4) Abstraction (5) Order irrelevance

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One-to-one correspondence

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A rule of counting; one number is assigned to each object; children with math disabilities often double-count obnjects

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Stable order

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A rule of counting; numbers are counted in a specific order (i.e., 1, 2, 3)

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Cardinality

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A rule of counting; the last number that is counted indicates the number of items

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Abstraction

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A rule of counting; objects of any kind can be grouped and countered

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Order irrelevance

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A rule of counting; objects can be counted in any order; children with math disabilities are able to count objects left to right, but may have difficulty counting objcts right to left

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Counting-all strategy

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An inefficient addition strategy used by typically-developing young children and some older children with math disabilities; to add two numbers, children count all numbers beginning with one until they reach the final answer

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Counting-on strategy

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A more efficient addition strategy used by most older children; to add two numbers, children start with the larger number and then count upwards until they reach the final answer

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Direct retrieval

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An efficient strategy for performing math calculations; children recall math facts (e.g., times tables) from memory

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Decomposition

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An efficient strategy for performing math calculations; children break down complex calculations into two or more simpler calculations

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Developmental model for math disability

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Developed by Geary and Hoard, this model for the emergence of math disability has four components: (1) Underling problems with language (interferes with listening, reading, and comprehending story problems) (2) Underlying visual-spatial deficits (interferes with numerosity and interpreting graphs/figure) (3) Executive functioning deficits (e.g., attention, inhibition, short-term/working memory (4) Deficits in math skills (i.e., knowledge and procedures)

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Direct instruction in mathematics

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The systematic presentation of math concepts and skills using a script; each concept or skill is modeled, practiced, and reinforced with more complex concepts or skills building upon previously mastered concepts or skills

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Self-instruction in mathematics

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A method of teaching math problem-solving; the teacher models the use of verbal steps or "prompts" while solving math problems, then encourages students to complete their own problems using the same steps while the teacher provides feedback and assistance

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Mediated/assisted instruction in mathematics

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A method of teaching math problem-solving; the teacher allows children to solve math problems and provides prompts or "hints"; does not rely on scripts or a series of verbal steps

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Heuristics

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"Rules of thumb" or general approaches to (math) problem solving

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Zone of proximal development

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In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they recieve proper guidance and instruction

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