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the part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord. plays a role in coordinating and integrating all bodily functions.

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central nervous system

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portion of the nervous system that transmits messages to and from the central nervous system. consists of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

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peripheral nervous system

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type of cell that is the basic unit of the nervous system. a neuron typically consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. they transmit messages to other ____s and to glands and muscles throughout the body.

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neuron

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neuron or nerve cell that carries messages to the CNS from receptors in the skin, ears, nose, eyes and other receptor organs.

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sensory neuron/ afferent neuron

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neuron that transmits messages from the CNS to muscles or glands.

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motor neuron

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neuron of the CNS that functions as an intermediary between sensory and motor neurons.

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interneuron

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the largest part of a neuron, containing the nucleus as well as structures that handle metabolic functions.

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cell body

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branch-like extensions from a neuron with the specialized function of receiving messages from surrounding neurons.

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dendrite

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extension of a neuron that transmits an impulse from the cell body to the terminal buttons on the tip of the axon.

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axon

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swollen bulb-like structure on the end of a neuron's axon that releases chemical substances known as neurotransmitters.

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terminal buttons

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state in which a neuron is not transmitting a nerve impulse. A neuron in this state has a net negative charge relative to its outside environment, and this state of potential energy prepares it to be activated by an impulse from an adjacent neuron.

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resting potential

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voltage change in a neuron's dendrites that is produced by receiving an impulse from another neuron or neurons.

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graded potential

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a specialized region of the cell body near the base of the axon.

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axon hillock

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electrical signal that flows along the surface of the axon to the terminal buttons, initiating the release of neurotransmitters

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action potential

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an action potential will be passed through a neuron's axon as long as the sum of graded potentials reaches a threshold. the strength of an action potential does not vary according to the degree of stimulation.

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all-or-none law

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specialized cells that form insulating covers called myelin sheaths around the axons of some neurons, increasing conductivity.

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glia cells

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insulating cover around some axons that increases a neuron's ability to transmit impulses quickly. made up of specialized cells called glia cells.

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myelin sheath

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small gap or exposed portion of the axon of a neuron between the glia cells that form the myelin sheath.

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node of ranvier

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includes the synaptic gap and a portion of the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes that are involved in transmitting a signal between neurons.

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synapse

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chemical messenger that transmits an impulse across the synaptic gap from one neuron to another.

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neurotransmitter

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effects that occur when excitatory neurotransmitters cause a graded potential to occur on the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron.

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excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)

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a transitory state of hyperpolarization that occurs when inhibitory neurotransmitters inhibit the postsynaptic membrane of a receiving neuron.

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inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

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the neurotransmitter that is released from motor neurons onto muscle fibers to make them contract. appears to also be involved in learning and memory.

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acetylcholine (ACh)

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a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. it is distributed throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems and is important in emotional arousal and stress.

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norepinephrine

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a neurotransmitter involved with the initiation of motor movement, attention and learning and memory. the dopamine system mediates reward and pleasure and it is the substance of addiction.

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dopamine

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a neurotransmitter involved in the control of the sleep/wake cycle, mood, and appetite. deficiencies in this are associated with sleep disorders, aggression and depression.

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serotonin

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the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal cord. it plays an important role in regulating arousal and anxiety.

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gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA)

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a class of neurotransmitter substances that function to inhibit the transmutation of pain information. morphine and other opiates act by facilitating the transmission of this NT.

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endorphins

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an amino acid derived from glucose. this neurotransmitter plays an important excitatory function. MSG contains glutamate.

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glutamate (glutamic acid)

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psychological disorder characterized by disturbed thought processes. linked to excessive levels of dopamine

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schizophrenia

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linked to low levels of serotonin.

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depression

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division of the peripheral nervous system that transmits messages to and from major skeletal muscles as well as from sensory organs to the CNS.

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somatic nervous system

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division of the PNS that transmits messages between the central nervous system and the endocrine system as well as the smooth muscles of the heart, lungs, stomach and other internal organs without intentional control.

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autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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division of the autonomic nervous system that functions to produce emergency responses such as increased heart rate, pupil dilation, and inhibited digestive activity. this nervous system works in tandem with the parasympathetic nervous system.

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sympathetic nervous system

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division of the autonomic nervous system that functions to conserve energy, returning the body to normal from emergency responses set in motion by the sympathetic nervous system.

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parasympathetic nervous system

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the two sides of the cerebrum

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cerebral hemispheres

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structure low in the brain that controls vital life support functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure; it also regulates many reflexive functions such as coughing or sneezing.

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medulla

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brain structure located just above the medulla that functions in fine-tuning motor messages, programming species-typical behavior, processing sensory info and controlling respiration.

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pons

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brain structure located beneath the overhanging back part of the cerebral hemispheres which functions to coordinate and regulate motor movements.

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cerebellum

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set of neural circuits extending from the lower brain up to the thalamus that play a critical role in controlling arousal and alertness. also known as the reticular activating system.

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reticular formation

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set of neural circuits circuits extending from the lower brain up to the thalamus that play a critical role in controlling arousal and alertness.

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reticular activating system (RAS)

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collection of structures located around the central core of the brain that play a critical role in emotional expression as well as motivation, learning, and memory. key structures of this system include the amygdala, the hippocampus, the septal area and parts of the hypothalamus.

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limbic system

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small limbic system structure located next to the hippocampus in the brain that plays an important role in the expression of anger, rage, fear and aggressive behavior.

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amygdala

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structure in the brain's limbic system that seems to play an important role in memory.

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hippocampus

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structure in the brain's limbic system that plays a role in the experiencing of pleasureu

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septal area

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the system of dopamine-containing neurons that originate in the ventral pons, project through the nucleus accumbens and septum's, and terminate in the frontal cortex. this system mediates the reinforcing effects of addictive drugs.

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mesolimbic-cortical system

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small structure located below the thalamus in the brain that plays an important role in motivation and emotional expression, as well as controlling the neuroendocrine system and maintaining the body's homeostasis. a part of the limbic system.

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hypothalamus

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structure located beneath the cerebrum in the brain that functions as a relay station, routing incoming sensory information to appropriate areas in the cerebral cortex. also seems to play a role in regulating sleep cycles.

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thalamus

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neural structures involved in the initiation of motor movement and emotion. includes the caudate nucleus, putamen, and the substantia nigra.

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basal ganglia

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a component of the basal ganglia involved with the control and initiation of motor movement. an area of the brain affected by Huntington's disease. located adjacent to the putamen.

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caudate nucleus

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the thin outer layer of the brain.

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cerebral cortex

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a component of the basal ganglia involved with the control and initiation of motor movement. an area of the brain affected by Huntington's disease, located adjacent to the caudate nucleus.

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putamen

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a region of dark colored neurons in the upper brainstem that sends axons to the caudate nucleus and to the putamen. an area of the brain effected by parkinson's disease.

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substantia nigra

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thin outer layer of the brain's cerebrum (sometimes called the gray matter) that is responsible for movement, perception, thinking, and memory.

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cerebral cortex

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region of the cerebral cortex that is involved in receiving sensory messages

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sensory cortex

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region of the cerebral cortex that transmits messages to muscles. this area controls virtually all intentional body movement.

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motor cortex

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the largest portion of the cerebral cortex (about 75 percent), involved in integrating sensory and motor messages as well as processing higher functions such as thinking, interpreting, and remembering.

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association cortex

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largest, foremost lobe in the cerebral cortex; an important region for movement, emotion, and memory.

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frontal lobe

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region of the frontal love that is the primary brain center for controlling speech.

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broca's area

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region of the cerebral cortex located just behind the central fissure and above the lateral fissure. this region contains the somatosensory cortex as well as association areas that process sensory information received by the somatosensory cortex.

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parietal lobe

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area of the parietal love, directly across the frontal love, which receives sensory info about touch, pressure pain, temperature, and body position.

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somatosensory cortex

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region at the rear of the cerebral cortex that consists primarily of the visual cortex.

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occipital lobe

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portion of the occipital lobe that integrates sensory information received from the eyes into electrical patterns that the brain translates into vision

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visual cortex

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region of the cerebral cortex located below the lateral fissure that contains the auditory cortex

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temporal lobe

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region of the temporal lobe located just below the lateral fissure that is involved in responding to auditory signals, particularly the sound of human speech.

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auditory cortex

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area of the left temporal lobe that is the brain's primary area for understanding speech

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wernicke's area

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an inability to know or recognize objects through the sense usually caused by brain injury or disease. visual (this) is the failure to recognize or identify objects visually even though they can be seen.

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agnosia

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an inability to visually recognize particular faces usually caused by brain disease or injury. patients with this can see a face but may not be able to recognize it as familiar.

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proagnosia

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degree to which a particular function, such as the understanding of speech, is controlled by one rather than both cerebral hemispheres.

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lateralization of a function

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broad band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the cortex.

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corpus callosum

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technique for studying the brain that involves surgical damage to a precise region of the brain.

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lesion production

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technique for studying the brain that involved stimulating precise regions with a weak electric current.

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brain stimulation

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technique for studying the brain in which tiny wires implanted in the brain are used to record neural electrical activity.

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electrical recording

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technique used to measure and record electrical activity of the cortex.

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electro-encephalography (EEG)

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a procedure used to locate brain abnormalities that involves rotating an X-ray scanner around the skull to produce an accurate image of a living brain.

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computerized axial tomography (CAT)

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technique for studying the brain that involves injecting a subject with a glucose-like sugar tagged with a radioactive isotope that accumulates in brain cells in direct proportion to their activity level.

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positron emission tomography (PET)

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procedure for studying the brain that uses radio waves to excite hydrogen protons in the brain tissue, creating a magnetic field.

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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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a method of magnetic resonance imaging that measures energy released by brain cells that are active during a specific task.

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function magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

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system of ductless glands, including the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, and gonads that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream or lymph fluids.

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endocrine system

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chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands that act to regulate the functioning of specific body organs.

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hormones

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gland in the endocrine system, located directly below and connected to the hypothalamus. this gland produces a number of hormones, many of which trigger other endocrine glands to release hormones.

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pituitary gland

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endocrine gland located in the neck that influences metabolism, growth, and maturation. produces the hormone thyroxine.

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thyroid gland

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the major hormone produced by the thyroid gland that regulates metabolism

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thyroxine

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glands within the endocrine system, located just above the kidneys, that influence emotional state, energy levels, and responses to stress by releasing hormones.

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adrenal glands

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glads within the endocrine system (ovaries in females and testes in males) that produce sex hormones that influence development of sexual systems and secondary sex characteristics as well as sexual motivation.

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gonads

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psychoactive drugs, includes opiates, sedatives, and alcohol that have the effect of slowing down or depressing central nervous system activity.

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depressants

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class of depressant drugs including tranquilizers, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines that induce relaxation, calmness and sleep.

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sedatives

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a class of depressant drugs that includes opium, morphine, codeine, and heroin.

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narcotics (opiates)

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psychoactive drugs, including caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine, that stimulate the central nervous system increasing the transmission of neural impulses.

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stimulants

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a group of powerful stimulants including benzedrine, dexedrine, and ritalin, that dramatically increase alertness and promote feelings of euphoria.

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amphetamines

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class of psychoactive drugs including LSD and ecstasy, that alter sensory perceptions, thinking processes, and emotions often causing delusions,hallucinations and altered sense of time and space.

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hallucinogens

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hallucinogenic drug derived from a fungus that grows on rye grass that produces profound distortions of sensations, feelings, time and thought.

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LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)

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drug derived from the hemp plant cannabis sativa, containing the chemical THC

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marijuana

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a naturally occurring substance that binds to THC receptors in the brain. marijuana contains THC, which also binds to these receptors.

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anandamide

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