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Industry vs. Inferiority

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Erikson's Theory: it is the combination of adult expectations & children's drive toward mastery that causes psychological conflict. It is resolved positively when children's experiences lead them to develop a set of competence at useful skills & tasks

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Inferiority

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Reflected in the pessimism of children who have little confidence in their ability to do well

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Developments combined in Erikson's sense of Industry

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a) positive but realistic self-concept b) pride in accomplishment c) moral responsibility d)cooperative participation with age mates

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Self Concept

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Children refine this during the school years. They organize their observations of behaviors and internal states into general dispositions. Begin to emphasize personality characteristics and competencies over specific behaviors.

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Social Comparisons

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Judge their appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others.

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Western Children & Self Esteem

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At age 6 or 7 children form four broad self-evaluations a) academic competence b) social competence c) physical/athletic competence d) physical appearance

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Physical Appearance & Self Worth

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perceived physical appearance correlates more strongly with overall self-worth than does any other self-esteem factor...with major implications for satisfaction with the self

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Changes in Level of Self Esteem During First Few Years of Elementary School

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Self-esteem declines during the first few years of elementary school due to: a) competence-related feedback b) as performance is increasingly judged in relation to that of others c) as children become cognitively capable of social comparison

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Changes in Level of Self Esteem from Fourth Grade On

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self-esteem rises for the majority of people, specifically in the areas of peer relationships & athletic capabilities *individual differences become increasingly stable from childhood to adolescence

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Self Esteem In middle childhood on

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positive relationships exist between self-esteem, valuing of various activities, and success at those activities from middle childhood on

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Asian Cultures and Self Esteem

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Chinese, Japanese, and Korean children score lower in self-esteem than North American children due to the emphasis on social comparison in school (although they have higher academic achievement)

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Boys vs. Girls and Self Esteem

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there is only a slight difference that exists between boys and girls in overall self esteem ALTHOUGH a widely held assumption suggests boys self esteem is higher than girls

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Caucasians vs African Americans and Self Esteem

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african american children tend to have higher self esteem than caucasian children due to warm extended families & ethnic pride

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Authoritative Child-Rearing

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Makes children feel good about themselves. Warm, positive parenting lets children know they are accepted as competent & worthwhile.

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Controlling Parents

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Communicate a sense of inadequacy to children that is linked to low self-esteem

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Indulgent Parenting

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Linked to unrealistically high self-esteem, which also undermines development

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Child Rearing & Children's Benefit

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Children benefit more from encouragement to strive for worthwhile goals than from compliments that have no basis in real attainment

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Attributions

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Our common, everyday explanations for the causes of behavior-whether it is attributed to luck, ability or effort

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Mastery-Oriented Attributions

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Credit success to high ability and failure to insufficient effort- factors that can be changed and controlled a) attribute failure to factors that can be controlled b) incremental view of ability (belief that it can increase)

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Learned Helplessness (luck)*

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Credit success to external factors (luck) and attribute their failures to low ability a) they hold a fixed view of ability (believe it cannot be changed) b) during a difficult task, they experience an anxious loss of control & give-up without really trying

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Children's Attributions Affect Their Goals

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a) mastery-oriented children focus on learning goals b) learned helpless children focus on performance goals, avoiding negative evaluations of their fragile sense of ability

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Parents of Learned-Helpless Children

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a) hold a fixed view of ability b) believe their child isn't capable & has to work harder than others to succeed

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Trait Statements

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Encourage children to adopt a fixed view of ability, so that they may question their competence in the face of setbacks (even when positive)

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Teachers Influence on Achievement-Related Attributions

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Teachers who are caring & helpful & emphasize learning over grades tend to have mastery-oriented students

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Attribution retraining

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an intervention that encourages learned-helpless children to believe they can overcome failure by exerting more effort a) works best when begun in middle childhood *prevention of learned helpless before it starts is the best**

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Self Concious Emotions: pride & guilt

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In middle childhood, pride & guilt become governed by personal responsibility & children now experience these feelings in the absence of adult monitoring

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School-Aged Children & guilt

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they don't report guilt for any mishap anymore, only for INTENTIONAL wrongdoing. They also experience shame.S

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Pride Vs. Guilt

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Pride: motivates children to taken on further challenges Guilt: prompts children to make amends & strive for self-improvement

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School Aged Children's Understanding of mental activity

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unlike preschoolers, school age children are likely to explain emotion by referring to internal states rather than physical events a) also become aware that they can experience more than one emotion at a time

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Mixed emotions

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appreciating mixed emotions helps children realize that emotional expressions may not reflect a persons TRUE feelings and it fosters awareness of self-conscious emotions

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What supports emotional understanding

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cognitive development & social experience support gains in emotional understanding, helping contribute to empathy

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Emotional Self-Regulation

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rapid gains in emotional self regulation occur during middle childhood as children learn to manage negative emotion that threatens their self esteem

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2 general strategies to cope w/ stress

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a) problem centered coping b) emotion-centered coping

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Problem Centered Coping

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a) appraise the situation as changeable b) identify the difficulty c) decide what to do about it

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Emotion Centered coping

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a) internal b)private c) aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome

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Emotional self efficacy

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a feeling of being in control of their emotional experience

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Children w/ poor emotional self regulation

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they are overwhelmed be negative emotion, interfering w/ empathy and prosocial behavior

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Perspective Taking

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Capacity to imagine what other people may be thinking and feeling

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Five-Stage Sequence by Robert Selman

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Describes changes in children's perspective taking skill based on responses to social dilemmas 1) children have limited idea of what other people might be thinking/ feeling 2) over time, become more aware that people can interpret the same event differently 3) soon, they can step into another persons' shoes & reflect on how that person might regard their own thoughts, feelings & behaviors 4) finally, able to evaluate two peoples perspectives simultaneously

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Factors Related to development of perspective taking

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a) promoted by experiences in which adults & peers explain their viewpoints b) good perspective takers are more likely to show empathy & sympathy & as a result are better liked by peers c) interventions that promote perspective taking reduce antisocial behavior & increase empathy & prosocial responding

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Distributive Justice

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Involves beliefs about how to divide material goods fairly

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William Damon Study: 5-6 years

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children's ideas based on STRICT EQUALITY (making sure each person gets an equal amount of a treasured resource

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William Damon Study: 6-7 years

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Children start to view fairness in terms of MERIT (believing that extra rewards should go to someone who has worked especially hard)

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William Damon Study: 8-9 years

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Children can reason on the basis of EQUITY & BENEVOLENCE(recognizing that special consideration should be given to those who are at a disadvantage

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Peer Relations

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society of peers becomes an increasingly important context for development in middle childhood

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Physical Aggression

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Declines in middle childhood, but other types of hostile aggression continue as children form peer groups

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Peer Groups

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collectives organized on the basis of proximity & similarity in sex, ethnicity, academic achievement, population & aggression a) generate unique values & standards for behavior and a social structure of leaders & followers

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Peer Cultures

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typically involves: a) specialized vocabulary b) dress code c) place to hangout in free time

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Impact of "codes"

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codes of dress & behavior bind peers together & create a sense of 'group identity'

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Excluding Peers

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most children regard exclusion wrong unless a peer threatens the group by lacking skills required to be in group (ex. sports)

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PsychologicallyBased Friendship

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a mutually agree on relationship in which children like each others personal qualities and respond to one another's needs & desires

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How children choose friends

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they tend to choose friends similar to themselves in age, sex, race, ethnicity, & SES...also personality, peer popularity, academic achievement & prosocial behavior

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High-quality friendships

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remain fairy stable over middle childhood, giving children an opportunity to learn the importance of emotional commitment& provide important context for learning to tolerate criticism & resolve disputes

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Peer Acceptance (likeability)

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the extent to which a child is viewed as a worthy social partner by age mates *powerful predictor of current & later psychological adjustment

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Self Reports

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used to assess peer acceptance. they measure: social preferences- children's identification of classmates they like/dislike social prominence- children's judgements of whom most of their classmates admire

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Self reports yield four categories of social acceptance

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a) popular children: those who get positive votes b) rejected children: actively disliked c) controversial children: many votes both positive & negative d) neglected children: seldom mentioned

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Rejected children

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they are unhappy, alienated, poorly achieving children w/ low self esteem

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Peer rejection

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in middle school, its sternly associated with poor school performance, absenteeism, dropping out, antisocial behavior & delinquency in adolescence & criminality emerging in adulthood

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Popular-prosocial children

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kind & considerate, combining academic & social competence

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Popular antisocial children

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'tough boys' with athletic skill but are poor students. they defy authority & cause trouble but are looked at as cool by peers

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Rejected-aggressive children

answer

high rates of conflict, aggression, hyperactive, inattentive & impulsive behavior. not good at emotional regulation & blame others for social difficulties

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Rejected withdrawn children

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passive & socially awkward, overwhelmed by social anxiety & fearful of being attacked. targeted by bullies

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peer victimization

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a destructive form of interaction (bullying) *these victims are also aggressive

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Controversial children

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hostile & disruptive but engage in high rates of positive, prosocial acts

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Neglected children

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well-adjusted. considered shy by classmates,just as socially skilled as average children & neglectedness is usually temporary

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Interventions for Rejected Children

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a)coaching, modeling & reinforcing positive social skills b) benefit from intensive academic tutoring c) perspective taking & social problem solving d) improve quality of parent-child interaction

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Gender stereotyped personality traits

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a) stereotyping of personality traits increases steadily during middle childhood & doesn't change to adult behavior til age 11 b) label some traits as more typical of one sex than the other

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Gender stereotyped achievement areas

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a) reading, art & music are "feminine" b) math, athletics & mechanical skills "masculine' c) general stereotype of males being smarter than females (impacts females)

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Cross gender stereoptyping

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children are intolerant of cross gender behavior by boys

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Gender identity & direction

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3rd to 6th grade, boys strengthen identification w/ masculine personality traits & girls identity with feminine traits decreases

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Gender typicality

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the degree a child feels similar to others of the same gender

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Gender contentedness

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degree a child feels comfortable w/ gender assignment

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Pressure to conform to gender roles

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degree to which the child feels that parents and peers disapprove of his or her gender-related traits

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Parent child relationships

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a) in middle childhood, the amount of time children spend with parents declines dramatically b) mothers & fathers devote more time to child of their own sex

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Coregulation

answer

transitional form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decisions

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Siblings

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a) important sources of support for school-aged children b) rely on each other for assistance & companionship c)NOT ESSENTIAL for normal development

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Sibling rivalry

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a) when parents compare siblings' traits, abilities & accomplishments b) to avoid this, siblings strive to be diff. from one another

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Same sex siblings

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if same sex siblings are close in age, parents comparisons are more frequent resulting in antagonism, quarreling & adjustment difficulties for the children

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Only children

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as well adjusted as others. they are higher in self esteem, achievement motivation, do better in school bc they have closer relationships with parents

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Gay & Lesbian parents

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a) as committed to and effective at child rearing as heterosexual parents b) children in these families don't differ in mental health, peer relations or gender identity from heterosexual families

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Divorce

answer

US has the worlds highest divorce rate b) 2/3 of divorced parents marry again & half their children experience the end of the second marriage

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Children of Divorce

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spend an average of five years in a single parent home b) individual difference in effects of divorce on children

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Newly divorced households

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a) family conflict rises b) drop in income if mother is head of home c) reduced ties w/ neighbors bc. they move to a new, less expensive home

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Discipline in divorced homes

answer

fathers inclined to be permissive & indulgent mothers can be harsh & inconsistent

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younger children & divorce

answer

blame themselves for breakup & think both parents might abandon them. display anxious, fearful, angry & defiant reactions

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older children & divorce

answer

better understand reasons behind the divorce

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school-age children & divorce

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react strongly when supervision is low and parental conflict is high

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Girls temperament & divorce

answer

internalize reactions: cry, withdrawal or engage in demanding & attention seeking behavior

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boys temperament & divorce

answer

more serious adjustment problems which may have contributed to marital breakup

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Problems children have with divorce

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a) problem with academic achievement, self-esteem, social competence & emotional & behavioral adjustment b)higher rates of early sexual activity & adolescent parenthood

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Effective Parenting

answer

how well custodial parent handles stress & shield child from family conflict & extent to which each parent uses authoritative child rearing

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Divorce Mediation

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series of meetings between divorcing adults and a trained professional, with goal of reducing family conflict, including legal battles

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Joint legal custody

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the court grants each parent an equal say in important decisions about the child's upbringing

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Blended/Reconstituted family

answer

family structure resulting from remarriage of a divorced parent that includes parent, stepparent & child

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Mother-Stepfather families

answer

boys: adjust quickly & welcome stepfather girls: difficulty with stepfather bc he ruins mother/daughter relationship

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father-stepmother families

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a) remarriage of noncustodial father leads to reduced contact w/ biological children b) when father has custody, children are negative about remarriage c) girls have hard time getting along w/ stepmothers

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Employed mothers & child development

answer

a) children of mothers who enjoy their work & remain committed to parenting show positive adjustment b) employed mothers who value parenting role use authoritative rearing & coregulation

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Paternal involvement outcome

answer

positive outcomes including: higher levels of achievement & generally better mental health

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Self-care children

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5-13 year olds who regularly look after themselves during after-school hours a) increase w/ age and rises with SES

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Self-care children w/ authoritative parents

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are: a) monitored by parental telephone calls b) have regular after-school chores

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Most common source of fears for western nations

answer

Exposure to negative information, especially on TV are the most common source of their fears

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Fears

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a)decline at the end of middle childhood especially for girls who express more fears than boys at ALL ages

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phobia

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a) an intense, unmanageable fear that lead to persistent avoidance of the feared situations (5% of school age kids develop one)

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School phobia

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feeling of severe apprehension about attending school a)appear around ages 11 to 13 during transition of middle childhood to adolescence

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Severe childhood anxieties

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may arise from: a) harsh living conditiions (inner city ghettos) and put children at risk for long term emotional distress & behavior problems

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Sexual abuse cases

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a) committed more often against girls than boys b) highest in middle childhood

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Typical sexual abuser

answer

male, either parent or someone the parent knows well. **25% of cases, mother is the abuser

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Sexual Abuser Problems

answer

a) have difficulty controlling their impulses b) may suffer from psychological disorders c) often addicted to alcohol or drugs

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Targets for Sexual abusers

answer

choose children who are weak, emotionally deprived

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Adjustment problems of sexual abuse victims in general

answer

depression, low self esteem, mistrust of adults, feelings of anger & hostility, difficulty getting along with peers

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adjustment problems of sexual abuse victims (young children.)

answer

sleep difficulties, loss of appetite, & generalized fearfulness

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adjustment problems of sexual abuse victims (adolescents)

answer

running away, suicidal reactions, substance abuse and delinquency

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Traits of sexual abuse victims

answer

precocious sexual knowledge and behavior

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Prevention & treatment for sexual abuse

answer

a) reactions of parents after discovering sexual abuse can cause distress b)long-term therapy with children & family is necessary c)courts prosecuting abusers & taking children more seriously d) educational programs are offered but few schools offer these interventions

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Resilience

answer

the capacity to overcome difficulties/misfortune

question

4 factors that promote resilience in middle childhood

answer

a) personal characteristics of children b) family environment c) school environment d) community environment **only one or a few necessary

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Personal characteristics that promote resilience

answer

easygoing, sociable temperament, above-average intelligence, favorable self esteem, persistence in the face of challenge & pleasure in mastery, good emotional self regulation, and flexible coping strategies

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Family environment that promotes resilience

answer

a) warm, trusting relationship w. at least one parent b) authoritative child rearing style c) positive discipline and avoidance of coercive tactics d) warm, supportive sibling relationships

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School that promotes resilience

answer

a) warm, helpful, stimulating teachers b) taught lessons in tolerance and respect c) codes against bullying exist d)extracurricular activités e) high quality after school programs

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Community that promotes resilience

answer

a) adults provide warmth, social support, and serve as positive coping models b) neighborhood resides and services are stable c) youth groups promote positive peer relationships & prosocial behavior

Emotional & social development in middle childhood – Flashcards

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