Ch 1-3 (6th Edition) – Flashcards
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Forces acting on or within an organism to start or direct its behavior.
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What is motivation?
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Observation of the change and strength of the behavior allows us to infer motivation.
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How can motivation be inferred by changes in behavior (like running speed) when variables (like food deprivation) are manipulated?
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When enough motivation is present an act is performed.
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What is a performance variable according to the text?
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Motivation results in a brief performance of a behavior whereas Learning affects performance in a more permanent way.
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Contrast motivation with learning.
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lack of behavior does not indicate lack of motivation (ex: a rabbit who freezes in front of a predator is not exhibiting lack of fear or motivation).
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The absence of a behavior does not mean what?
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Hesitant
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Energetic behavior has found to be more motivated than what kind of behavior?
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Rats who have been trained to push a lever forcefully are demonstrating how learned responses affect behavior, it does not mean they are more motivated.
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Vigorous responses do not equate with high motivation, what is an example of this fact?
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Directionality of a behavior.
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What is considered an index of motivation?
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It determines which of two items is more motivating (ex: sucrose concentrations to lab rats).
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What is the goal of preference testing?
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The Nomothetic approach analyzes how GROUPS of people/animals are SIMILAR; the Idiographic approach analyzes how INDIVIDUALS are UNIQUE.
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What is the difference between the Nomothetic an Idiographic approaches?
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Instincts
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Name the terms used by McDougall and James to describe innate motives
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As physiological functions.
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Motive states are equated with needs in the text, how are they viewed?
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Motive states are influenced by the activation of circuits within the organism by changes in specific factors. Conscious awareness and intent of the organism are NOT assumed.
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What are the assumptions of the Mechanistic Approach?
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Motive states are influenced by the way information is interpreted by the organism.
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What are the assumptions of the Cognitive Approach?
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Physiological, Individual, Social and Philosophical.
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What are the four categories of levels of analysis?
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Brain circuits involved with punishment and reward exist.
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Direct electrical manipulation of the brain has shown us what?
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The activity of large groups of brain cells.
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What does an EEG measure?
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The activity of small groups of brain cells and single neurons.
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What does a PET or MRI measure?
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The noted behavior is present in people in general (ex: learned aggression in Bandura's Bobo doll experiment).
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During an experiment, when behavioral changes occur in many individuals, what can be assumed?
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Some motivated behaviors are learned through observation.
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Bandura's Bobo doll experiment suggested what?
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They did not question the group's decision but wondered why they differed from the group.
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In Asch's conformity study, how did participants explain their behavior?
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INSTINCT (energy accumulates in the organism causing motive states) and ACTIVATION (brain circuitry monitors the body and activates behaviors when changes occur in bodily systems).
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Name the two forms of the biological approach.
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Learning motives through observation.
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Modeling is the process of...
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Organisms are motivated by pleasure and pain.
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Name the assumptions of the Hedonistic Approach.
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Humans are motivated to reach their full potential physically, psychologically and emotionally (relates to Maslow's idea of Self Actualization).
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What is Growth Motivation?
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An aspect of growth motivation, it refers to a human's need to effect our environment.
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What is Effectance Motivation/Personal Causation?
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INSTINCT (automatic, non-rational processes of the body), and WILL (the free, rational functions of the soul).
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Dualism states that people are motivated by what?
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the conversion of sensation into perception and reflection (when the mind has knowledge of it's own operations).
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According to Locke, the sources of ideas are....
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1) Nerves send specific coded messages (negating the idea of animal spirits) 2) Codes determine the content of information
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What is the importance of Muller's Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies?
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It led to the idea that functions are localized in particular areas of the brain.
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Why is Gall's idea of Phrenology important today?
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Thorndike's research yielded the idea that motivation is a result of reacting to previous consequences: pleasurable consequences would be sought and aversive consequences avoided.
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Explain Stimulus-Response Psychology.
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Woodworth's research proposed that bodily needs influenced behavior as an organism sought to find things in the environment that would reduce these needs.
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Explain Drive Theory.
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Research on the purposive & goal oriented nature of motivated behavior.
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What led to the development of Expectancy-Value Theory?
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For the benefit of DNA
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Why do organisms exist according to Dawkins?
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In mitosis a single cell divides to reproduce itself, in meiosis 2 cells with 1/2 the number of chromosomes as a normal cell, combine to form a new cell with genetic information from both a male and female.
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What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis?
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The survival of the individual is dependent on the successful reproduction of it's genes.
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Why is survival 'viciously and tenaciously' defended according to the authors?
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Reproduction is considered a more fundamental process because metabolism allows an individual to survive long enough to pass on their genes.
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Is reproduction of metabolism a more fundamental process?
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organisms with a strong sexual motivation are expected to be more successful in finding partners and successfully mating, eventually making strongly sexually motivated organisms the norm.
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How does sexual motivation relate to successful reproduction?
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players for the next round of the game.
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All organisms today compete to provide...
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The recombination of genes (changes occur slowly due to genetic mutation in asexual reproduction) and "repairing" of DNA (because of the contribution of 2 organisms DNA).
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What are the advantages of sexual motivation?
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the benefit of the original gene.
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Beneficial mutations can spread rapidly without losing...
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It increases the chances of successful reproduction.
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Why is sex pleasurable?
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It is less pleasurable, going against the pleasure seeking evolutionary mechanism.
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Why is safe sex difficult ?
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DNA is more likely to be passed on by the male spiders who position themselves above the females jaws (which results in it's death) than the male spiders who do not.
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Why is male red spider behavior adaptive?
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a desire to protect one's own genes by protecting it's offspring.
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Maternal aggression can be seen as...
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The mating season is longer for tropical mammals while mammals in temperate climates restrict their mating behaviors to seasons when reproduction is most successful.
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How do tropical mammals differ from those in temperate zones?
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Sexual behavior for non-reproductive reasons (like reducing aggression, social bonding, gaining access to food) increases the likelihood of an organism living long enough to successfully reproduce.
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What is the result non-reproductive sex in humans and bonobos?
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Relationships.
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What becomes obsolete when sexual motivation and reproduction are removed?
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1% of the population.
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According to Maslow, what proportion of people become self actualized?
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The progressive change of organisms across time.
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What is evolution?
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genes and environment.
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The interaction of which 2 things results in natural selection?
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Viability, Fecundity and Fertility.
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Natural selection influences which 3 characteristics of genes?
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It increases viability, or the ability to live long enough to reproduce.
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What is the evolutionary function of the distress calls of baby chicks?
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More offspring are produced, resulting in more chances for an individual's genes to be passed on.
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What is the advantage of Fecundity?
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Competition for mates resulting in the choosing of a mate by an individual.
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What is sexual selection?
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400 chances between the ages of 13 and 45.
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The human female has how many chances to reproduce in what time frame?
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the time when offspring must be maintained before they can maintain themselves.
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What is the developmental period that effects mate selection for the female?
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women are attracted to men with resources (parental investment model) who will help raise children and men are attracted to health and youth (relating to reproductive value).
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What are the differences in mating strategies for males and females?
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instinct, emotion and thought.
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James' 3 components of human behavior
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There are many ways to arrive at the same function, when one system fails another kicks in (ex: lateral hypothalamus and ventral hypothalamus in obese rat, it does not eat until it explodes, it arrives at a new 'normal' body weight).
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What is meant by motivation is "overdetermined"?
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raising eyebrows and smiling
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What is the universal human signal of recognition?
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unlearned genetically determined behaviors that occur under specific circumstances.
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Instinct according to the text is
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Similar to reflexes occur blindly at first and occur in the presence of sensory stimuli.
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James' 3 beliefs about instincts
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Cognitive (thoughts of desired object), Affective (emotions aroused by object), Conative (striving towards object or goal or away from it).
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McDougalls 3 components of instincts
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behavior is aroused by external stimuli
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Kuo's argument against instinct
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Instincts are fixed but behavior can be learned
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Tolman's belief about instinct
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Consummatory = well coordinated, fixed patterns of response to specific stimuli, usually involved in acting upon instinct. Appetetive= restless, searching behavior that is flexible and adaptive to the environment, usually involved in striving toward a goal or object.
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Differences between consummatory & Appetetive behavior
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ASE=Action Specific Energy - the source of energy for a behavior. IRM=Innate Releasing Mechanism - like a lock that inhibits behavior until the 'key' stimuli releases it.
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What are ASE & IRM
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They prefer the other eggs assuming that the other eggs have more of the acting releaser than their own.
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Which egg will a Plover choose when presented with their own or black & white spotted eggs?
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stimuli that release behavior more effectively than the normal stimulus.
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Supernormal Key Stimuli
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species specific motor patterns that are rigid, stereotyped (little variability) and blind.
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Fixed Action Patterns are
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shifting of weight onto one leg when getting ready to leave.
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Example of an intention movement in humans
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relationships to external environment more aptly relies on learning.
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Lorenz believed that learning is primarily useful when...
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Successive Ambivalent (alternation of incomplete behaviors, ex: stickleback attack and escape pattern), Simultaneous Ambivalent (displaying two behaviors at once, like a cat that arches its back in fear but points its feet away as though it would run), Redirected (displacing emotion by acting against someone/thing else, like a kid who kicks an animal instead of mom), Ethological Displacement (equally strong behaviors negate each other like when a male stickleback's behaviors of flight and agression result in nest building).
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What are the 4 categories of conflict behavior?
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attachment to caregiver, lifelong, occurs during key developmental periods, irreversible and independent of rewards.
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Imprinting
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Happens in critical period of development, is permanent and irreversible, and is independent of rewards
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Lorenz' 3 characteristics of imprinting
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Color is more dominant than shape
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Figler found what was more important in stimulus generalization in imprinting?
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they respond to small, rounded moving objects and it releases tongue snapping.
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Frog eye receptors respond to what, and results in what?
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Long living organisms=open programs because they benefit from the learned modifications due to a longer life span whereas short living organisms have closed programs.
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What does longevity in an organism mean to Mayr?
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it is a long distance transmitter of emotion
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What do Hager & Eckman say about the human face
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chubby cheeks, large eyes, small mouths and large heads
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what features release cuddling in humans
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it is a ritualized form of feeding derived from infant feeding behavior.
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What did Eibl-Eibsfeldt say about kissing?
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threat gesture
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Purpose of staring in primates
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lower pre than post=eye contact, exploration, social behavior. Higher pre than post=crying, non-social behavior, pathological behaviors
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3 behaviors major depressives differed in pre/post treatment
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will kill young of a deposed male to increase favorable conditions for own offspring.
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when/why will males kill young of own species?
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Appeasement gestures ex: dog rolling on back and urinating
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What behaviors prevent injury in intraspecific conflict?
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sexual responses to emerge and successful mating.
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Aggressive responses must be reduced for what to occur?
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Originally a way for men to increase their access to women
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Cosmides' thory about origin of war
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motivation seen as a continuum ranging from coma (low) to Stress (very hight)
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Basic idea of arousal theory
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increased arousal is related to increased performance, but only to a point
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Yerkes-Dodson law
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Arousal levels are controlled by the brains structure of the RAS in the pons region of the brainstem.
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Bremer's procedures resulted in the discovery of what?
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alert behavior
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Beta waves are associated with
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continual sleep in the animal, it could not wake.
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Lindsley cut the RAS and what occured
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activation of the cortex by the RAS
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Hebb's theory of motivation
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Behavioral=energized behavior, Autonomic=changes in bodily functions, Cortical=desynchronized, fast brain waves
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Lacey's 3 types of arousal
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Behavioral, cortical and autonomic
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3 types of arousal
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keeps organisms from being active at dangerous times in day
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Webb & Agnew's idea of adaptivity of sleep
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circadian rhythms = biorhythms , regulation based on time, homeostatic regulation = regulation of biochemical substances
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2 sleep controlling processes
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insomnia, daytime naps, shorter and fragmented night time sleep, decline of stage 4 sleep
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sleep patterns in elderly
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resembles waking state in REM
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EEG pattern of stage 5 sleep
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restorative
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Function of NREM
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NREM=random thoughts, nonemotive REM=bizarre and irrational
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Differences in NREM & REM dreams
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100 mins
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Time spent dreaming
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salience and how close it was to waking
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2 things affecting rememberance of dreams
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continuity=concerns in day appear in dreams, repetition=same characters, settings, and interactions appear in multiple dreams, both part of Domhoff's Neurocognitive theory of dreams.
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continuity and repetition principles in dreams
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shift in eating patterns occur but overall food intake unchanged, aggressive and sexual behaviors increase
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REM deprivation in animals
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Acetylcholine = arousal levels, Norepenephrine = alertness Serotonin = blocks unimportant stimuli info, maintenance of daily activities Histamine = attention to environmental stimuli
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Arousal promoting Neurotransmitters
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CSF from sleep deprived goats injected into rats and cats resulting in drowsiness
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Pappenheimer's experiment
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active ingredients like caffeine and theophylline inhibit adenosine
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Arousal properties of coffee and tea
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3 mths before birth in humans
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REM can be detected as early as
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REM plays a role in memory consolidation
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Greenberg believed
