question

ability grouping

answer

Practice of placing students in special classes or small groups based on an assessment of their abilities or readiness to learn.

question

academic learning

answer

Type of learning normally associated with basic school subjects and the type of thinking processes required to understand them.

question

academic learning time (ALT)

answer

The amount of time a stu- dent is engaged in a particular subject or learning task at which he or she is successful.

question

accommodation

answer

Process of developing new concepts or schemata to understand a situation that is new and can be made to fit existing schemata.

question

accountability

answer

Holding teachers responsible for their teaching practices and for what their students learn.

question

achievement motives

answer

Desires and impulses that lead one to take action and to excel for the purpose of experiencing success and feeling competent.

question

advance organizer

answer

A statement made by teachers before a presentation or before having students read textual materials that provides a structure for new information to be linked to students' prior knowledge.

question

affiliative motives

answer

Desires and impulses that lead one to take action for the purpose of experiencing friendship and close relationships with others.

question

alternate-form reliability

answer

The degree to which two dif- ferent forms of a test over the same topics can produce consistent results.

question

analogies

answer

Statements or phrases that compare two things.

question

analytical intelligence

answer

Defined by Robert Sternberg as the kind of intelligence that involves an individual's cognitive processes.

question

analyze

answer

One of the six types of cognitive processes in Bloom's revised taxonomy, defined as being able to break materials into constituent parts and show how parts relate to one another.

question

apply

answer

One of the six types of cognitive processes in Bloom's revised taxonomy, defined as being able to apply particular knowledge and carry out and implement particular procedures in a given situation.

question

artifacts

answer

The products produced by students in problem- based instruction, such as reports, videos, computer programs.

question

art of teaching

answer

A degree of accomplishment that allows basing complex decisions more on the teacher's experience than on research and scientific evidence.

question

assertive discipline

answer

An approach to classroom management that emphasizes teachers asserting their right to teach by insisting on appropriate student behavior and by responding assertively to student infractions.

question

assessment

answer

Process of collecting a full range of information about students and classrooms for the purpose of making instructional decisions.

question

assessment as learning

answer

Classroom situations that help students assess their own learning and the learning of their peers.

question

assessment for learning

answer

Ongoing formative assessment used to diagnose students' prior knowledge and interests and to monitor their learning progress.

question

assessment of learning

answer

Summative assessments of students used to determine grades, placements, graduation, and college admission.

question

assimilation

answer

Process of understanding something new by adapting it to what is already known.

question

assistive technologies

answer

Special tools, mainly computer related, to assist individuals who have special needs.

question

attribution theories

answer

View of motivation that emphasizes the way individuals come to perceive and interpret the causes of their successes and failures.

question

authentic assessment

answer

Assessment procedures that have students demonstrate their abilities to perform particular tasks in real-life settings.

question

authentic relationships

answer

Relationships teachers build with their students in which both teachers and students treat each other as real and significant people.

question

autonomy norm

answer

The expectation in many schools that teachers can do pretty much what they want within the confines of their classroom.

question

behavioral objective

answer

A form for writing an instructional objective that emphasizes precision and careful delineation of expected student behaviors, the testing situation, and a performance criterion.

question

behavioral theory

answer

Approach to motivation emphasizing that external events, positive or negative, direct behavior.

question

behaviorism

answer

School of psychology emphasizing the importance of behavior and the external environment as a determinant of human behavior and learning.

question

benchmarks

answer

Designated checkpoints or the degree to which a particular instructional standard has been mastered.

question

best practice

answer

Teaching methods, processes, and proce- dures that have been shown to be effective for helping students learn.

question

bullying

answer

Persistent physical and/or verbal abuse (including teasing and goading) by one person toward a less powerful person aimed at causing harm.

question

buzz groups

answer

A small-group technique to help broaden student participation in discussion.

question

causal-comparative research

answer

Research that explores causal relationships when the independent variable cannot be manipulated.

question

challenged

answer

A term used to refer to individuals who have special needs or disabilities.

question

checking for understanding

answer

Technique used by teachers to see if students have grasped newly presented information or skills.

question

circle seating pattern

answer

A seating arrangement used in discussion that places the teacher and students in a circle; maximizes free interchange among participants.

question

classroom activities

answer

Things students are expected to do in the classroom, such as listening, discussing, completing worksheets, and taking tests.

question

classroom management

answer

The ways teachers organize and structure their classrooms for the purposes of maximizing student cooperation and engagement and minimizing disruptive behavior.

question

classroom meetings

answer

An approach to classroom management in which the teacher holds regular meetings for the purpose of helping students identify and resolve problem situations.

question

classroom processes

answer

Interpersonal and group processes that help classroom participants deal with issues of expectations, leadership, attraction, norms, communication, and cohesiveness.

question

classroom properties

answer

Distinctive features of classrooms, such as multidimensionality, simultaneity, immediacy, unpredictability, publicness, and history, that shape behavior of participants.

question

classroom structures

answer

The ways classrooms are organized around learning tasks and participation, and the ways goals and rewards are defined.

question

cluster seating

answer

A seating arrangement that puts desks in groups to facilitate cooperative learning and small- group lessons.

question

cognitive-constructivist perspective

answer

A view of learning that posits that learning occurs when learners are actively involved in the process of acquiring and constructing their own knowledge.

question

cognitive dissonance

answer

Discrepancies or contradictions between what an individual believes to be accurate or true and what is present in a current situation or simultaneously held belief.

question

cognitive process dimension

answer

The dimension in Bloom's revised taxonomy that identifies the cognitive processes or thinking required of particular learning tasks.

question

cognitive processes

answer

The thinking engaged in by teachers and students.

question

Common Core State Standards

answer

A set of curriculum standards adopted by most states aimed at standardizing what students should know and be able to do.

question

communication skills

answer

Interpersonal skills that help facilitate the transmission and reception of verbal and non-verbal messages.

question

competitive goal structure

answer

Situation that occurs when one person is successful in reaching his or her goals when others are unsuccessful.

question

concept attainment

answer

An inductive approach to teaching concepts by which students derive the meaning and attributes of a concept from examples and non-examples of the concept given by the teacher.

question

concepts

answer

Ways of organizing knowledge and experiences in categories within which items have common attributes.

question

concept teaching

answer

Approaches to teaching in which the emphasis is on helping students learn how to make and label categories of ideas, objects, and experiences.

question

conceptual knowledge

answer

One of four types of knowledge in Bloom's revised taxonomy, defined as knowing about the interrelationships among basic elements and knowing about principles, categories, theories, and models.

question

conceptual mapping

answer

A technique of visually organizing and diagraming a set of ideas or concepts in a logical pattern so relationships can be readily observed. Also called webbing.

question

conditional knowledge

answer

Knowledge about when it is appropriate to use particular declarative or procedural knowledge.

question

conjunctive concept

answer

A concept that has a constant rule structure.

question

constructed-response items

answer

Type of traditional test items such as essay or short answer that require students to provide their own responses.

question

constructivism

answer

A perspective of teaching and learning in which a learner constructs meaning from experience and interaction with others and the teacher's role is to provide meaningful experiences for students.

question

constructivist perspective

answer

A view that knowledge is often personal and that humans construct knowledge and meaning through experience.

question

control group

answer

Group of subjects that receives no special treatment during experimental research.

question

convergent questions

answer

Type of question that focuses on relationships and analysis of cause and effect; calls for finding single, best answer.

question

cooperative goal structure

answer

Situation that occurs when students perceive they can obtain their goal if, and only if, the other students with whom they work also obtain their goals.

question

corrective feedback

answer

Information given to students about how well they are doing.

question

correlation

answer

A term used to express how two or more variables are related.

question

correlational research

answer

A type of research that investigates relationships between variables that exist naturally.

question

correlation coefficient

answer

Numbers ranging from +1.00 to -1.00 that describe the numerical relationship between variables.

question

create

answer

One of the six types of cognitive processes in Bloom's revised taxonomy, defined as being able to combine elements together for a coherent whole and/or reorganize elements into a new pattern.

question

creative intelligence

answer

Defined by Robert Sternberg as the type of intelligence that involves having insight to cope with new situations or experiences.

question

criterion-referenced test

answer

A test that evaluates a particular student's performance against a preestablished standard or criterion.

question

critical attribute

answer

Feature of a concept that distinguishes it from all other concepts.

question

critical thinking

answer

Thinking directed toward analyzing arguments and detecting bias and fallacious reasoning.

question

cuing

answer

A signal from teachers to alert or to set up situations for students in order to help them get ready to make an appropriate response.

question

cultural competence

answer

A situation where individuals are aware of their own culture and the assumptions they make about human behavior and values and where they attempt to understand and respect the worldview of culturally diverse populations.

question

cultural deficit theory

answer

The now-discredited theory that accounts for the low achievement of minorities by postulating some defect in their culture or race.

question

cultural difference theory

answer

The currently accepted theory that accounts for the low achievement of minorities by postulating that the discontinuity between home culture and school culture interferes with learning.

question

culturally relevant curriculum

answer

Teaching practices where teachers connect the world of their students and their cultures to the world of the school and the classroom.

question

cultural pluralism

answer

An ideology encouraging minority cultures to maintain their distinctive identities within the larger culture and to value cultural diversity within societies.

question

culture

answer

A group's total way of life; the way group members think about social action and ways to resolve issues in social collective life.

question

curriculum mapping

answer

A technique for charting what is taught (curriculum) across grade levels and among various subjects.

question

cyberbullying

answer

Form of bullying using the Internet and social media with the aim of causing harm or embarrassment of a person.

question

dangle

answer

When a teacher starts an activity and then leaves it in midair.

question

debriefing

answer

Way to assess the effectiveness of a classroom discussion by asking students what they thought of the discussion.

question

declarative knowledge

answer

Knowledge about something or that something is the case; knowledge of facts, concepts, or principles.

question

deductive reasoning

answer

Process of determining particular instances from more general rules or principles.

question

dependent variable

answer

In research, the variable that may change as a result of the independent variable; the consequences of the independent variable.

question

descriptive research

answer

Research aimed at gathering detailed information about some phenonemon.

question

desist behavior

answer

A teaching behavior aimed at stopping disruptive student behavior.

question

desist incidence

answer

A classroom incident serious enough that if not dealt with will lead to widening management problems.

question

differential treatment

answer

The difference in the educational experiences of the majority race, class, culture, or gender and those of minorities; that is, differences in quality of curriculum, instruction, classroom interaction, funding, enrollment, etc. and so on.

question

differentiation

answer

Practice of adapting instruction to meet the needs of particular students.

question

direct instruction

answer

An approach to teaching basic skills and sequential material in which lessons are highly goal-directed and learning environments are tightly structured by the teacher.

question

direct presentation

answer

One of several approaches to concept teaching.

question

disability

answer

A term used to refer to individuals who have special needs or challenges; the inability to do something such as hear, walk, or learn.

question

discontinuity

answer

A term used to describe a situation where the beliefs, values, and ways of communicating are different between one setting and another (e.g., the home and the school).

question

discourse

answer

The larger patterns of verbal exchange and communication that occur in classrooms.

question

discovery teaching or learning

answer

An approach to teaching that emphasizes encouraging students to learn concepts and principles through their own explorations and to solve problems on their own.

question

discrepant event

answer

A puzzling situation that sparks curi- osity and motivates inquiry into cause-and-effect rela- tionships; used by teachers to engage students.

question

discussion

answer

A teaching method that relies on verbal exchange of ideas among students and the teacher.

question

disjunctive concept

answer

A concept that contains alternative sets of attributes.

question

dispositions

answer

Attitudes and inherent qualities of mind. Used to designate attitudes toward thinking.

question

distributed practice

answer

Practice assigned to students to be done for brief periods spread over several sessions or periods of time.

question

divergent questions

answer

"What-if" questions that allow multiple answers and solutions and promote creativity.

question

downtime

answer

Time in classrooms when lessons are completed early or when students are waiting for upcoming events, such as moving to another class or going home.

question

Ebonics

answer

A term used to refer to a dialect used by some African Americans.

question

ecological system

answer

A view of classrooms in which inhabitants (teachers, students, and others) interact within a highly interdependent environment.

question

economy

answer

Term used by Bruner to describe ways to limit the amount of material to be taught at any one time.

question

effect size

answer

A statistic that shows how much larger or smaller an expected effect may be of an experimental method as compared to a more traditional method used in a control group.

question

elaborative interrogation questions

answer

Questions that follow up on other inferential questions and require students to support and expand their ideas.

question

e-learning

answer

Term used to define learning that takes place using the Internet. Also referred to as virtual and distance learning.

question

emotional intelligence

answer

Defined by Goleman as an individual's ability to recognize and monitor one's emotions and be aware of the emotions of others.

question

enacted curriculum

answer

The curriculum that is planned and carried out (enacted) by classroom teachers.

question

enduring understandings

answer

The big ideas of a subject that every student should learn because the ideas have enduring value.

question

engaged time

answer

The amount of time students actually spend on a particular subject or learning activity; also called time on task.

question

English language learners (ELLs)

answer

Students for whom English is a second language.

question

equity

answer

Refers to making conditions for everyone impartial, fair, just, and equal.

question

essay test

answer

An approach to testing in which students are required to express their thoughts in writing.

question

essential questions

answer

Questions that reflect big ideas in any subject and serve as the heart of the curriculum.

question

establishing set

answer

Procedure teachers use at the beginning of a lesson aimed at getting students ready to learn. Also referred to as anticipatory set.

question

ethnicity

answer

Refers to groups that have common identities such as language or nationality.

question

ethnography

answer

Term from the field of anthropology to describe an extensive descriptive study of a single culture, society, or particular phenonemon.

question

ethos

answer

Common set of values, beliefs, and ways of doing things found in particular classrooms or schools. See also school culture.

question

evaluate

answer

One of the six types of cognitive processes in Bloom's revised taxonomy, defined as being able to make judgments based on criteria or standards.

question

evaluation

answer

Process of judging, assigning value, or deciding on the worth of a particular program or approach or of a student's work.

question

evidence-based practices

answer

Teaching practices in which evidence from research has shown them to be effective in producing student learning.

question

exceptionality

answer

Term used to define students who have special social, mental, emotional, or physical needs.

question

exhibits

answer

Displays of artifacts (products) students present that show their work from a problem-based lesson.

question

experimental group

answer

A group of subjects that receives a special treatment in experimental research.

question

expert teachers

answer

Experienced teachers who have mastered the art and science of teaching.

question

explaining links

answer

Prepositions or conjunctions used in a presentation that indicate the cause, result, means, or purpose of an event or idea.

question

extrinsic motivation

answer

Behavior caused by external factors such as rewards, punishments, or social pressures.

question

factual knowledge

answer

One of four types of knowledge in Bloom's revised taxonomy, defined as the basic elements, facts, and vocabulary of a topic or subject.

question

FAIR approach

answer

A process used to deal with behavioral situations caused by troubled students. Process includes understanding the cause of the student's behavior, making accommodations, developing interactive strategies, and finding ways to de-escalate the situation.

question

fairness

answer

The degree to which a test is free from bias and does not discriminate against a particular group of students because of race, ethnicity, or gender.

question

feedback

answer

Information given to students about their performance. Same as knowledge of results.

question

feeling tone

answer

The degree to which a learning environment or a particular learning task is perceived as pleasant or unpleasant.

question

field dependent

answer

Refers to individuals who tend to perceive situations "as a whole."

question

field independent

answer

Refers to individuals who tend to perceive the separate parts of a situation rather than the whole.

question

flexible grouping

answer

Teaching practice where students within the same classroom are temporarily grouped by ability for particular subjects, such as reading, writing, or math.

question

flip-flop

answer

Occurs when a teacher starts an activity, then stops and starts another one, and finally returns to the original activity.

question

flipped classroom

answer

Approach to teaching where teacher creates videos or other multimedia presentations for student to view as homework, thus freeing up class time to provide individual help and to hold discussions.

question

flow experience

answer

State when individuals feel total involvement and concentration and strong feelings of enjoyment as a result of a particular experience.

question

formal curriculum

answer

The curriculum that is planned by educational agencies, normally state departments of education and/or local school districts.

question

formative assessment

answer

Assessment that occurs before or during instruction and is used to assist with planning or making adaptations.

question

fragmentation

answer

Occurs when a teacher breaks a learning activity into overly small units.

question

full bilingual program

answer

A program in which instruction is carried out equally in two languages and the goals are full oral proficiency and literacy in both.

question

Gantt chart

answer

A planning technique to show pieces of work in relationship to one another and when each piece is expected to start and to finish.

question

gender bias

answer

Views of or actions toward males and females that often favor one gender over the other.

question

gifted and talented

answer

Students who are identified as being very bright, creative, and/or having special talents.

question

goal structures

answer

The way that goals specify the degree of interdependence sought among students. There are three different types of goal structures: individualistic, competitive, and cooperative.

question

grading on a curve

answer

A practice of assigning grades so they will follow a normal curve.

question

grading to criterion

answer

Practice of assigning grades according to how well students do on a predefined set of objectives or standards.

question

graphic organizer

answer

A visual image presented to students to provide structure for new information about to be presented. Similar to an advance organizer.

question

group development

answer

Stages classroom groups go through in the process of developing into a cohesive and effective group.

question

group skills

answer

Skills students have to participate effectively in groups.

question

guided practice

answer

Practice assigned to students to be completed under the guidance or watchful eye of the teacher.

question

handicapped

answer

A term used to refer to individuals who have special needs or challenges. Some believe it carries a negative connotation and projects a negative image toward those with special needs or challenges.

question

hands-off norm

answer

Expectation in many schools that teachers will not interfere in other teachers' work.

question

higher-level thinking

answer

Abstract intellectual process that involves analyzing, criticizing, and reaching conclusions based on sound evidence.

question

high-stakes tests

answer

Tests used to make important decisions about students, such as placement or admissions to particular programs or educational institutions.

question

holistic scoring

answer

Technique for grading essay questions or other written work that emphasizes looking at the work as a whole rather than at its individual parts.

question

homework

answer

Independent practice and academic work performed outside the classroom.

question

human capital

answer

Factors in an educational organization such as the qualifications and experiences of teachers who work there, including their abilities, knowledge, and skills.

question

inclusion

answer

Practice of including students, regardless of their disabilities, in regular classrooms.

question

in-context learning style

answer

Refers to the learning style where individuals acquire understanding and skills as they are needed in real-life situations.

question

independent practice

answer

Practice given to students to accomplish on their own without the teacher's guidance.

question

independent task

answer

A situation where a learning task can be accomplished by individuals working alone.

question

independent variable

answer

In research, the variable that is treated and presumed to cause some change in the dependent variable.

question

individualistic goal structure

answer

A situation where a goal can be accomplished by individuals working or performing by themselves.

question

individualistic reward structure

answer

Occurs when achievement of the goal by one student is unrelated to the achievement of the goal by other students.

question

individualized education plan (IEP)

answer

A learning plan specifying long- and short-term educational goals for students who are disabled and agreed on by teachers, parents, and special educators.

question

inductive reasoning

answer

Process of coming up with general rules or principles based on information from specific examples or data.

question

influence motives

answer

Desires and impulses that lead one to take action for the purpose of having more control over learning or having more say in how schools are run.

question

information processing

answer

The process used by the mind to take in, store, and retrieve information for use.

question

infusion strategies

answer

Approach to teaching thinking that infuses the teaching of thinking into regular subject matter lessons.

question

iGeneration

answer

Term coined to refer to the current generation of students who have grown up using computers and digital technologies.

question

instructional aspects of teaching

answer

Those aspects of teachers' work during which they are providing face-to-face instruction to students in classrooms.

question

instructional objective

answer

Statements that describe a teacher's instructional intents.

question

intelligence

answer

Ability individuals have for solving problems and adapting to one's environment.

question

intelligence quotient (IQ)

answer

A score that compares chronological and mental ages.

question

interaction patterns

answer

A term used to refer to the patterns of the verbal and nonverbal communication in classrooms.

question

interdependent task

answer

A situation where a learning task can only be accomplished by two or more individuals working together.

question

interpersonal communication skills

answer

Skills that promote honest communication and positive regard among students.

question

intrinsic motivation

answer

Occurs when people behave because an act brings personal satisfaction or enjoyment.

question

Jigsaw

answer

An approach to cooperative learning in which students work in mixed-ability groups and each student is responsible for a portion of the material.

question

knowledge base

answer

Information, accumulated over time from research and the wisdom of experienced teachers, that informs teaching practices.

question

knowledge dimension

answer

The dimension in Bloom's revised taxonomy that defines what learners know or are expected to know.

question

knowledge of results

answer

Feedback given to students about their performance.

question

leadership aspects of teaching

answer

Aspects of teachers' work, such as providing motivation and coordinating and controlling learning environments and activities.

question

learner-centered planning

answer

Planning that involves students in the process.

question

learning abilities

answer

Abilities individuals have for acquiring new knowledge and skills and for adapting to one's environment.

question

learning goal orientation

answer

An orientation toward learning wherein students are motivated by internal factors and compete mainly with themselves.

question

learning preferences

answer

Preferred environments or modalities learners have toward learning and studying.

question

learning progression

answer

A tool that specifies a set of sub-skills and enabling knowledge that must be learned prior to mastering a more complex curriculum standard or learning outcome.

question

learning strategies

answer

Plans or strategies learners have for approaching particular learning tasks or studying.

question

learning styles

answer

Particular approaches learners have toward learning or studying.

question

Learning Together

answer

An approach to cooperative learning developed by Roger and David Johnson consisting of students working on assignments interdependently in heterogeneous teams.

question

least restrictive environment

answer

The placement situation for students with disabilities that is the most normal and least confining based on the student's particular needs and problems.

question

lesson plan

answer

Organization for instruction for a particular lesson or period.

question

level of actual development

answer

A concept attributed to Lev Vygotsky that identifies a learner's level of current intellectual functioning.

question

level of difficulty

answer

Refers to how difficult a question asked of students is to answer.

question

level of potential development

answer

A concept attributed to Lev Vygotsky that identifies the level at which a learner could function intellectually with the assistance of a teacher or more advanced peer.

question

logical consequences

answer

Punishments administered for misbehavior that are directly related to the infraction.

question

long-term memory

answer

Place in the mind where information is stored, ready for retrieval when needed.

question

loosely coupled systems

answer

An organizational arrangement in which what goes on in one part of an organization is not very connected to what goes on in other part of the organization.

question

mainstreaming

answer

Placing children with special needs in regular classes full time or part time.

question

massed practice

answer

Practice assigned to students to be done during a single extended period of time.

question

mean score

answer

The arithmetic average of a group of scores.

question

melting pot

answer

Ideology of education that believes the strengths of minority cultures should be blended into a new, single, superior culture.

question

mental abilities

answer

Phrase used to define abilities individuals have as measured by performance on particular cognitive tasks.

question

mental age

answer

Score in intelligence testing that designates average mental ability for a particular age group.

question

mental planning

answer

Planning done by teachers as they think and reflect about their teaching; these plans are not always committed to paper.

question

metacognitive knowledge

answer

One of four types of knowledge in Bloom's revised taxonomy, defined as knowledge and awareness of one's own cognition.

question

metaphors

answer

A figure of speech where one thing is applied to something else.

question

momentum

answer

Term used by Kounin to describe how teachers pace instruction.

question

motivation

answer

The process by which behavior is directed toward important human goals or toward satisfying needs and motives.

question

multicultural education

answer

An approach to teaching aimed at helping students recognize and value cultural diversity.

question

multiple intelligences

answer

Gardner's theory that states intelligence is more than a single ability and instead consists of eight different types of abilities.

question

needs theory

answer

Theory of motivation positing that people are motivated to take action to satisfy basic and higher-level needs.

question

negative reinforcer

answer

A stimulus such as punishment intended to eliminate or reduce undesirable behavior.

question

Net generation

answer

generation born in the late 1970s and the 1980s characterized by their familiarity and use of computers and digital technologies.

question

noncritical attributes

answer

Features found in some but not all members of a category.

question

nonlinear model

answer

An approach to planning in which planners start with actions or activities deemed important and later attach goals to the action to help explain what happened.

question

norm-referenced test

answer

A standardized test that evaluates a particular student's performance by comparing it to the performance of some other well-defined group of students.

question

norms

answer

The shared expectations students and teachers have for classroom behavior.

question

novice teacher

answer

A teacher who is just beginning and is still learning the art and science of teaching.

question

numbered heads together

answer

Small group strategies that encourage cooperation and participation.

question

objectivist perspective

answer

A view that knowledge consists of "truths" and an objective reality that humans have access to and can learn through discovery and inquiry.

question

observational learning

answer

Learning that occurs by observing others.

question

opportunity to learn

answer

The amount of time a teacher actually spends on academic tasks or activities.

question

organizational aspects of teaching

answer

Those aspects of teachers' work involving interactions with other adults in the school setting for the purpose of schoolwide planning and coordination.

question

out-of-context learning style

answer

Learning that is not necessarily connected to real or immediate needs—the typical kind of learning required of students in schools.

question

overdwelling

answer

Situation that occurs when a teacher goes on and on after a subject or a set of instructions is clear to students.

question

overlappingness

answer

The ability of teachers to spot disruptive behavior and to deal with it without interrupting the flow of the lesson.

question

overlearning

answer

Working or practicing a task or skill until it is learned completely and can be performed automatically.

question

participation structures

answer

The established rules and processes that determine who can say what, when, and to whom during classroom discourse.

question

pedagogy

answer

The study of the art and science of teaching; also refers to the methods and approaches to instruction.

question

performance assessment

answer

Assessment procedures that have students demonstrate their abilities to perform particular tasks in testing situations.

question

performance criteria

answer

The standards used for judging the quality of a student's performance.

question

performance goal orientation

answer

An orientation toward learning in which students strive to reach externally imposed standards and to better their own performances compared to the performance of others.

question

performance indicators

answer

Assessment items that measure student mastery of a specified benchmark or curriculum standard.

question

performance standards

answer

Recommendations about what should be taught that define what students should know or be able to do and at what level they are expected to perform in various subjects.

question

performance task

answer

Activities students are asked to undertake so a performance can be judged.

question

positive reinforcer

answer

A stimulus such as a reward intended to get individuals to repeat desirable behavior.

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positivism

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View that knowledge is somewhat fixed and can be studied best through direct observation of behavior.

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power

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Term used by Bruner to describe the process of selecting only the most important (powerful) ideas and concepts to teach to students.

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practical arguments

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Reasoning based on knowledge and beliefs that is used by teachers as they make pedagogical decisions.

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practical intelligence

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Defined by Robert Sternberg as the kind of abilities individuals have to adapt and reshape their environments.

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praise

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Positive verbal and nonverbal statements offered by teachers as reinforcers to encourage and strengthen desirable student behaviors.

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presentation teaching model

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An approach to teaching wherein the primary emphasis is on explaining new information and ideas to students.

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preventative management

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Perspective that effective classroom management can be achieved through good planning, interesting lessons, and effective teaching.

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prior knowledge

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Information and knowledge held by students before they receive instruction.

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procedural knowledge

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Knowledge about how to do something. Can pertain to specific behavioral skills or to complex cognitive strategies.

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procedures

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Systems established by teachers for dealing with routine tasks and coordinating student talk and movement.

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punishments

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Penalties imposed by teachers to discourage undesirable behaviors.

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qualitative research

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An approach to research that relies on more holistic observations and reports data in narrative rather than quantitative form.

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quantitative research

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An approach to research that studies behavior in an objective fashion and uses traditional statistical procedures to analyze data.

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race

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A term used to refer to a group of people who share common biological traits.

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random calling

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Approach used during a discussion or a question and answer session where students are called at random rather than called after having their hands raised.

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randomness

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Term used to denote random sampling or random assignment to a group in a research experiment.

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rational-linear model

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An approach to planning that focuses on setting goals and objectives first and then on selecting particular strategies or activities to accomplish these predetermined goals.

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recitation

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An approach to teaching in which a teacher provides bits of information, asks questions, gets students to respond, and then provides feedback by praising or correcting.

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reflection

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Careful and analytical thought by teachers about what they are doing and the effects of their behavior on their instruction and on student learning.

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reinforcement

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Consequences administered by teachers to encourage and strengthen certain desirable behaviors.

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reinforcement principles

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Psychological principles holding that reinforced behaviors tend to be repeated; behaviors that are not reinforced tend to disappear.

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relational concept

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A concept whose rule structure depends on its relationship to other concepts.

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reliability

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The degree to which a test produces consistent results over several administrations.

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remember

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One of the six types of cognitive processes in Bloom's revised taxonomy, defined as being able to recognize and recall relevant knowledge from long-term memory.

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repertoire

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The number of teaching approaches and strategies that teachers are able to use to help students learn.

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responders

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Electronic devices that allow students to respond to teachers' questions during a presentation or discussion.

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response to intervention

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A process designed to provide services to students who are struggling and who have special needs as early as possible. The process involves early screening, use of evidence-based intervention strategies, and precise monitoring and documentation of progress.

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reward structures

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The ways in which rewards can be distributed within a classroom. There are three types- individualistic, competitive, and cooperative.

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rule-example-rule technique

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A technique used when explaining something whereby the general principle or rule is given first, then elaborated on with specific examples, and finally summarized by a restatement of the rule.

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rules for behavior

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Statements that specify expected classroom behaviors and define behaviors that are forbidden.

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sample

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A group of subjects drawn from a larger population for the purpose of research.

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scaffolding

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The process in which a learner is helped by a teacher or more accomplished person to master a problem or skill slightly beyond his or her current developmental level.

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schema, schemata

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An individual's (teacher or student) knowledge structure or the way information has been organized and stored in memory.

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school culture

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The ways members of a school think about social action; the embedded beliefs, values, and attitudes of members of a school. Ethos, tone, and community are often used to describe the same phenomenon.

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school effectiveness research

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Research that tries to uncover features that make some schools more effective than others.

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scientific basis of teaching

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Teaching in which decisions are based on research and scientific evidence.

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scientific thinking

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Reasoning associated with scientific inquiry that involves drawing conclusions based on evidence.

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scoring rubric

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A detailed description of some type of performance and the criteria that will be used to judge it.

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seatwork

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Independent practice and academic work performed in the classroom.

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selected-response items

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Type of traditional test items such as multiple choice and true-false that allow students to select responses from provided alternatives.

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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A situation in which teachers' expectations and predictions about student behavior or learning cause it to happen.

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self-regulated learner

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A learner who can diagnose a learning situation, select an appropriate learning strategy, monitor the effectiveness of the strategy, and remain engaged in the learning task until it is accomplished.

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sensory memory

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Part of the memory system that first notes and does the initial processing of stimuli.

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short-term working memory

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The place in the mind where conscious mental work is done; also called working memory.

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smoothness

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The smooth flow and pacing of instructional events.

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social capital

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Factors in an educational organization such as the interactions that teachers have with their peers that focus on instruction and the amount of trust and closeness among teachers and between teachers and their administrators.

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social context

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The surrounding environment within which something (teaching and learning) exists and which influences what happens.

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social cognitive theory

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Theory of learning that emphasizes learning through observation and the importance of learner beliefs about self and learning situations.

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socially just classroom

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Classrooms where students are engaged in the struggle for social justice in the larger society as well as in the classroom itself.

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social skills

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Skills or abilities individuals have to work or interact effectively in social and group settings.

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sociocultural theory

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Theory that human motivation is influenced not only from factors within the individual, such as needs, goal orientations, and expectancies, but also from the expectations and behaviors of groups that the individual identifies.

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socioeconomic status (SES)

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Variations among peoples based on income, family background, and relative prestige within the society.

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split-half reliability

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The degree of consistency a test can produce when it is divided into two halves and student performance is compared for each half.

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stages of teacher development

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A theory explaining how growth in teaching expertise occurs over time, progressing from one stage to the next stage in sequence.

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standard deviation (SD)

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A measure that shows the spread of a set of scores from the mean.

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standardized tests

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Tests that are normally designed by professional test makers for nationwide use and commercially distributed.

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standards

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Statements about what students should know and be able to do. Often used today instead of goals and objectives.

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statistical test and significance

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Procedures used to determine whether results from research are indeed true or a result of chance.

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structural approach

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Approach to cooperative learning attributed to Spencer Kagan.

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student portfolios

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Collection of a sample of student work used to evaluate accomplishments over time.

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Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STADs)

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An approach to cooperative learning in which students work in mixed-ability groups and rewards are administered and recognized for both individual and group effort.

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submersion approach

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The now-illegal practice of simply placing limited English proficiency students in the classroom and expecting them to pick up English on their own without any formal teaching or other support from the school.

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successful intelligence

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Robert Sternberg's label for a set of abilities possessed by an individual that make it possible to attain success in life.

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summative assessment

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Assessment done after instruction to determine program effectiveness or the worth of students' work.

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sustaining expectation effect

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Occurs when teachers do not change their previous expectations about a student, even after the student's performance has improved or regressed.

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swing seating

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Seating plan that allows easy movement of seats during cooperative learning lessons.

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synergy

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Positive results achieved from working together or through combined action.

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syntax

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The overall flow, sequence, or major steps of a particular lesson.

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task analysis

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A process for breaking down complex learning tasks into fundamental parts or subdividing complex skills into specific subskills so they can be mastered one at a time.

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task structures

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The way lessons are arranged and the learning demands that lessons place on students.

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taxonomy

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A classification system or device that helps arrange and show relationships among objects and ideas.

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teacher clarity

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Phrase used to describe the process of teachers giving presentations that are clear and free of ambiguity.

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teacher effectiveness research

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Refers to research that aims at finding relationships between teaching behavior and student achievement.

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teacher enthusiasm

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A set of behaviors employed by teachers, such as using uplifting language and dramatic body movements, to make students interested in learning materials.

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teacher expectations

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Beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions teachers hold about the capabilities of particular students—may or may not be accurate.

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test anxiety

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Phenomenon that occurs when students experience undue stress while taking a test and do poorly as a result.

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test blueprint

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A tool used in constructing a test so it will have a balance of questions representing various forms of knowledge and cognitive processes.

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test-retest reliability

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The degree to which a test shows consistent results when administered to the same student at different times.

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thinking routines

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Routines and structures that provide scaffolding to help make thinking processes visible to students.

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think-pair-share

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A technique used by teachers to slow down the pace of discourse and to increase student participation.

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tiered activities

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A strategy for getting all students, regardless of abilities, to focus on the same understanding or skill but at different levels of abstraction or complexity.

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time-tabling

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Chronological mapping of time relationships among various instructional activities.

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transitional bilingual programs

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Programs in which limited English proficiency students are initially provided instruction in their native language, with gradual increases in English until proficiency is achieved.

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transitions

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The times during a lesson when the teacher is moving from one type of learning activity to another.

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understand

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One of the six types of cognitive processes in Bloom's revised taxonomy, defined as being able to interpret, exemplify, classify, summarize, infer, compare, and explain knowledge.

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unit plan

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An integrated plan for instruction covering several days and including several lessons aimed at a common set of goals and objectives.

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U-shaped seating pattern

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A seating arrangement used for discussions in which students' chairs form a U and the teacher is seated at the open end of the U.

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validity

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The degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure.

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value-added assessments

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Assessments that show the amount of learning gain made by students as a result of particular instruction situations, such as being in a teacher's classroom for the school year.

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variable

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A characteristic of a person or a physical or social situation that can change or vary from one instance to the next.

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verbal signposts

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Statements made by teachers when explaining something that tells the students what is important or alerts them to important points coming up.

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visual cuing

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Use of visual devices, such as hand signals, to inform students about what they should be doing.

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wait-time

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The time a teacher waits for a student to respond to a question and the time a teacher waits before responding back.

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with-itness

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The ability of teachers to spot disruptive student behavior quickly and accurately.

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zone of proximal development

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A concept attributed to Lev Vygotsky that represents the area between a learner's level of actual development and his or her level of potential development.

Arends, R. Learning To Teach terms – Flashcards

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