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a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

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developmental psychology

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What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists? - nature and nurture - continuity and stages -stability and change

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Developmental Psychology's Major Issues (heading)

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Our genes and experiences form us. Ethnic groups also differ in parenting. The differences between groups are small.

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Nature and Nurture (sub-heading)

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-Those who emphasize experience and learning see development as slow, while those who emphasize biological maturation tend to see development as predisposed stages. Everyone passes through the stage in the same order. -Three theories of how psychological development happens in stages.

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Continuity and Stages (sub-heading)

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-Research reveals that we experience both stability and change. Some of our characteristics, such as temperament (our emotional reactivity and intensity) are very stable. -As people grow older, personality gradually stabilizes -Personalities of children can predict personality later in life - Some traits, such as social attitudes, are much less stables than temperament, especially during late adolescent years. -Life requires both stability and change.

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Stability and Change (sub-heading)

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What is the course of prenatal development, and how do teratogens affect that development?

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Prenatal Development and the Newborn (heading)

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- conception

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Conception (sub-heading)

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...

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Prenatal Development (sub-heading)

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the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo ; fewer than half of all fertilized eggs survive beyond the 2 weeks. After one week of cell division, cells begin to differentiate jobs

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zygote

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the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month; then the zygote attaches to the mother's uterine wall, where the zygote's inner cells become the embryo and the outer cells become the placenta, the life-link that transfers nutrients and oxygen. Over the next 6 weeks, the organs begin to form and the heart begins to beat.

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embryo

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the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth; by nine weeks after conception, an embryo looks like a human and it is now a fetus. During the 6th month, a stomach develops for survival in case of a premature birth. By the six months, the fetus is responsive to sound, especially the mother's. Their cries also bear the signature of the mother's native language.

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fetus

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(literally "monster maker") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm; reason for why pregnant woman should not drink alcohol, as it affects the baby as well. It affects the baby's brain.

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teratogens

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physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features. ; the fetal damage may occur because alcohol has an epigenetic effect: it leaves chemical marks on DNA that switch genes abnormally on or off.

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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

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What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants' mental abilities? -the newborn has the rooting reflex, so when something touches their cheek, babies turn toward that touch, open their mouth, and vigorously root for a nipple.

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The Competent Newborn (sub-heading)

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decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

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habituation

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During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?

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Infancy and Childhood: Physical Development (module heading)

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biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

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maturation

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- On the day you were born, you had most of the brain cells you would ever have. However your nervous system was immature; After birth, the branching neural networks that will enable you to walk and talk had a wild growth spurt. -From ages 3 to 6, the most rapid growth was in your frontal lobes, which enable rational planning. The association areas are the last cortical areas to develop. Pathways supporting languages proliferate into puberty. A use-it-or-lose-it pruning process shuts down unused links and strengthens others.

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Brain Development (heading)

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- As an infant's muscles and nervous system mature, skills emerge. The motor development sequence is essentially universal. Babies roll over, sit unsupported, crawl, and then walk. There are however individual differences in timing of the stages of the sequence. -Genes guide motor movement. Identical twins typically start walking on the same day.

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Motor Development (heading)

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How does an infant's developing brain begin processing memories? -Our earliest memories seldom predate our third birthday. As children mature, from 4 to 6 to 8 years, childhood amnesia is giving way, and they become increasingly capable of remembering experiences.

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Brain Maturation and Infant Memory

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From the perspectives of Piaget, Vygotsky, and today's researchers, how does a child's mind develop? -Piaget's studies; the driving force behind our intellectual progression is an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences.

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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development (Module Heading)

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all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

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cognition

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a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

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schema

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interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

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assimilation

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adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

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accommodation

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Piaget believed children's minds experience spurts of change, followed by greater stability . In his view, cognitive development consisted of four major stages- sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational

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Piaget's Theory and Current Thinking (heading)

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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

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Sensorimotor Stage (sub-heading)

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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

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sensorimotor stage

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the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived; babies look longer at unfamiliar scenes; they also have a sense for mass and ratios and the like.

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object permanence

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in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

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preoperational stage

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the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

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conservation

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in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

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egocentrism

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people's ideas about their own and others' mental states- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict; experiment with Anne taking the ball away from Sally and putting it into her cupboard. People with ASD cannot infer others' thoughts and feelings (they have an impaired theory of mind)

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theory of mind

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a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, an by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

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autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

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in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events; can grasp conservation

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concrete operational stage

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in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

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formal operational stage

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He noted that by age 7, they increasingly think in words and use words to solve problems. They may imitate a parent's phrase, or whisper to themselves to solve math problems.; Where Piaget emphasized the growth of a child through interaction with the physical environment, Vygotsky emphasized the growth of a child through interaction with the social environment. Language he believed was an important building block for thinking. ; zone of proximal development is zone between what a child can and can't do.

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An Alternate Viewpoint: Lev Vygotsky's Scaffolding (heading)

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Today's researchers see development as more continuous than did Piaget. They have revealed conceptual abilities Piaget missed. Moreover, they see formal logic as a smaller part of cognition than Piaget did.

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Reflecting on Piaget's Theory (heading)

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How do parent-infant attachment bonds form? - Infants prefer familiar faces and voices. -stranger anxiety

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Infancy and Childhood: Social Development (module heading)

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the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

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stranger anxiety

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an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

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attachment

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-infants become attached to those who are comfortable and familiar -monkey experiment in which they found out that baby monkeys preferred artificial mother that had cloth wrapped around it rather than wire artificial mother.

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Origins of Attachment (heading)

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-monkey experiment in which they found out that baby monkeys preferred artificial mother that had cloth wrapped around it rather than wire artificial mother.

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Body Contact (sub-heading)

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-attachments based on familiarity form during a critical period.

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Familiarity (sub-heading)

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an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

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critical period

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the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period; the process is hard to reverse once something is imprinted; humans, unlike ducklings, do not imprint. However they do become attached, during a sensitive period. They like rereading the same books and re-watching the same movies.

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imprinting

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How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned about the effects of temperament and parenting? -temperament -some infants show secure attachment, when they seek mother's presence, or insecure attachment, when they cry out loudly without their mother. -Heredity predisposes temperament differences. The genetic effect appears in physiological differences as anxious infants have high hear rates -Parenting is also a big factor. -Infants who lack a caring mother are said to suffer "maternal deprivation"

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Attachment Differences: Temperament and Parenting (heading)

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a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

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temperament

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-Erik Erikson believed that securely attached children approach life with a sense of basic trust -He theorized that infants with sensitive and loving parents form a lifelong attitude of trust rather than fear

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Attachment Styles and Later Relationships (sub-heading)

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according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

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basic trust

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Does childhood neglect, abuse, or family disruption affect children's attachments? -Deprivation of attachment leads to anxiety symptoms. Orphaned children tend to fare better on later intelligence tests if raised in family homes. -Those who experience no sharp break from their abusive past, don't bounce back so easily and had lifelong scars. -Most abusive parents have reported being neglected as children -young children who have survived physical abuse are at increased risk for health problems. -Adults also suffer when attachment bonds are severed. Deep and longstanding attachments seldom break quickly.

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Deprivation of Attachment (heading)

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How does day care affect children? -Daycares help thinking and language skills, but also increase aggression and defiance. The more time spent in daycare the more problem behaviors

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Daycare (heading)

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How do children's self-concepts develop? -At about age 12, most children have developed a self-concept - By 15 to 18 months they can recognize themselves in mirrors

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Self-Concept (heading)

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all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

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self-concept

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What are three parenting styles, and how do children's traits relate to them? -Authoritarian: parents impose rules and expect obedience -Permissive: parents submit to their children's desires. -Authoritative: Parents and both demanding and responsive. -Those who have high self-esteem have authoritative parents. Those with authoritarian parents tend to have less social skills, and those with permissive parents tend to be more aggressive and immature. -These are correlational, not causation.

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Parenting Styles (heading)

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- Westernized culture prefer independent children. Many Asian and African cultures value emotional closeness. They encourage a strong sense of family self.

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Culture and Child Raising (heading)

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-gender...

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Gender Development (module heading)

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the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female

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gender

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What are some gender similarities and differences in aggression, social power, and social connectedness? -Males and females, despite similarities, do have differences. -Differences like how the average woman has longer life span, expresses emotions freely, is shorter, vulnerable to depression and eating disorder. The average man is more likely to commit suicide, develop alcohol issues, have color blindness, autism, antisocial behavior.

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How Are We Alike? How Do We Differ? (heading)

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-aggression -In surveys, men admit to more aggression, but to physical aggression. But women are more likely to commit acts of relational aggression, such as passing on a malicious piece of gossip. -Violent crime rates illustrate the gender difference in behaving aggressively.

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Gender and Aggression (sub-heading)

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any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

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aggression

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-In most places, men do place more importance on power and achievement and are socially dominant. Men's power hunger is more expected and accepted. -As leaders, men tend to be more directive, while women tend to be more democratic. When people interact, men are more likely to utter opinions, and women are more likely to express support.

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Gender and Social Power (sub-heading)

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-Gilligan suggested that Western men had struggles to create a separate, independent identity more so than relationship-oriented females. Females tend to be concerned more with "making connections." Females are more interdependent than males. -Women have oriented their interests and vocations more to people and less to things

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Gender and Social Connectedness (heading)

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How do gender roles and gender typing influence gender development? -For most people, their biological sex and their gender are tightly intertwined.

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The Nurture of Gender: Our Culture (heading)

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- We can see culture's shaping power in gender roles. -Gender roles vary over time and place. Women tend to stay home more and care for the children. - In nomadic societies of food-gathering people, there is little division of labor by sex.

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Gender Roles (sub-heading)

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a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

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gender role

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a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

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role

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-Children are "gender detectives." Once they grasp that two sorts of people exist they search for clues about gender and they find them in dress, toys, language, and songs. Girls they may decide have long hair. -For some people, comparing themselves with their culture's concepts of gender produces feelings of confusion and discord. Transgender people's gender identity differs from that typical of their sex. -Transsexual people feel like a man in a woman's body, or vice versa . -Some transgender people cross-dress to express their gender identity. Most cross-dressers are biological males, that majority of whom feel an attraction to females.

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How Do We Learn to Be Male or Female?

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our sense of being male or female

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gender identity

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the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

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social learning theory

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the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role; Even in families that discourage traditional gender typing, children organize themselves into "boy worlds" and "girl worlds"; Cognition also matter as you had a gender schema that organized boy-girl characteristics.

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gender typing

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an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex.

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transgender

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...

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Parents, Peers, and Early Experiences (module heading)

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How do early experiences modify the brain? -Our genes dictate out overall brain architecture, but experience fills in the details, developing neural connections and preparing our brain for thought and language and other later experiences. -Rosenzweig did experiment with rats in which one group was put in a communal environment, while the other was put in solitary confinement. Those in the communal environment developed a heavier and thicker brain cortex. -"Handled" infants that received touches, developed faster neurologically and gained weight more rapidly. The result of puberty is a massive loss of unemployed connections. -The maturing brain's rule: Use it or lose it.

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Experience and Brain Development (heading)

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In what ways do parents and peers shape children's development? -Society has reinforced parent blaming. Parents do matter though. Yet in personality measures, shared environmental influences from the womb onward typically account for less than 10 percent of children's differences. Parents should be given less credit for kids who turn out great and less blame for kids who don't as two children in the same family are different.

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How Much Credit or Blame Do Parents Deserve? (heading)

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-At all ages, but especially during childhood and adolescence, we seek to fit in with our groups and are influenced by them. -selection effect: when kids seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests.

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Peer Influence (heading)

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How is adolescence defined, and what physical changes mark this period? -Today's developmental psychologists see development as lifelong (life-span perspective)

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Adolescence: Physical and Cognitive Development (module heading)

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the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

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adolescence

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-Adolescence begins with puberty, the time when we mature sexually. The sequence of physical changes in puberty is far more predictable than their timing. -As teens mature, their frontal lobes also continue to develop. The growth of myelin, the fatty tissue around axons, enables better communication with other brain regions. -Maturation of the frontal lobes lags behind the emotional limbic system. This explains a teen's occasional impulsiveness and risky behavior. Younger teens will tend to succumb to drugs as their frontal lobes aren't fully developed. When reasoning with their gut, they weigh the immediate benefits more heavily.

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Physical Development (sub-heading)

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How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development? -During the early teen years, reasoning is often self-focused, thinking that their experiences are unique. They also begin imagining what others are thinking about them.

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Cognitive Development (heading)

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- When adolescents achieve the intellectual summit Piaget called formal operations, they apply their new abstract reasoning tools to the world. They may think about what is ideally possible and compare that with the imperfect reality of their society.

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Developing Reasoning Power (sub-heading)

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-Two crucial tasks of childhood and adolescence are discerning right from wrong and developing character. Piaget and Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning guides moral actions. -Moral Reasoning: Piaget believed that children's moral judgments build on their cognitive development. Kohlberg agreed with Piaget and sought to describe the development of moral reasoning. He asked moral question to children, adolescents, and adults and came up with three basic levels of moral thinking: preconventional, conventional, postconventional. He believed the sequence to be unvarying. Critics say that postconventional is mostly for individualistic cultures.

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Developing Morality (sub-heading)

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- Moral Intuition: Haidt believes that much of our morality is rooted in moral intuitions. (examples of pushing a guy onto train tracks to save five people) -Moral Action: As children's thinking matures, their behaviors also become less selfish.

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Moral Intuition (sub-heading)

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What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence? -Erikson contended that each stage of life has its own psychosocial task, a crisis that needs resolution.

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Adolescence: Social Development and Emerging Adulthood. (module heading)

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-to refine their sense of identity, adolescents in individualist cultures usually try out different "selves" in different situations. -For both adolescents and adults, group identities are often formed by how we differ from those around us. -But not always, as some forge their identity early, simply by adopting their parents' values. Others may adopt an identity in conformity with a peer group- jocks, preps, geeks. -A key task of adolescence is to achieve a purpose. Young Americans' self-esteem falls during the early to midteen years, but then rebounds during the late teens and twenties. -The adolescent identity stage is followed in young adulthood by a developing capacity for intimacy.

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Forming an Identity (heading)

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our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

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identity

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the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.

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social identity

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in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

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intimacy

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How do parents and peers influence adolescents? - As adolescents in Western cultures seek to form their own identities, they begin to pull away from their parents. -adolescence is typically a time of diminishing parental influence and growing peer influence. -Heredity does much of the heavy lifting in forming individual temperament and personality differences, and peer influences d o much of the rest.

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Parent and Peer Relationships (heading)

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What is emerging adulthood? -Together, later independence and earlier sexual maturity have widened the once-brief interlude between biological maturity and social independence.

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Emerging Adulthood (heading)

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for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

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emerging adulthood

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How is our biological sex determined, and how do sex hormones influence prenatal and adolescent development? -Our biology may influence our gender differences in two ways: genetically, by our differing sex chromosomes, and physiologically, from our differing concentrations of sex hormones.

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Sexual Development (module heading)

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-From your mother you receive the X chromosome, from your father you receive either an X or Y chromosome. The Y chromosome includes a single gene which triggers the testes to develop and produce testosterone. -During fourth and fifth prenatal months, sex hormones bathe the fetal brain and influence its wiring

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Prenatal Sexual Development (sub-heading)

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the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

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X chromosome

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the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

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Y chromosome

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the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, bit the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.

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testosterone

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- boys' heights increase. During this growth spurt, the reproductive organs and genitalia develop dramatically. The secondary sex characteristics, such as breasts and hips in girls and deep voices for boys, develop -In some countries, some girls reach puberty earlier. This is variously attributed to increased body fat, increased hormone-mimicking chemicals, and increased stress. -Puberty landmakrs are the first ejaculation in boys (spermarche), usually by 14, and the first menstrual period in girls (menarche) usually by 12.

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Adolescent Sexual Development (sub-heading)

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the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

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puberty

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the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that makes sexual reproduction possible.

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primary sex characteristics

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nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

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secondary sex characteristics

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the first menstrual period

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menarche

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What are some of the ways that sexual development arises? -Sometimes nature blurs the biological line between males and females. Intersex individuals are born with unusual combinations of male and female physical features. -Sex-related genes and physiology result in behavioral and cognitive differences between males and females. (example of "Brenda" Reimer who lost his penis and was raised as a girl, but he eventually identified as male)

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Variations on Sexual Development (sub-heading)

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How can sexually transmitted infections be prevented? -Rates of STDs are rising. Teenage girls are especially vulnerable because of lower levels of protective antibodies and not being fully matured in biological development. -Condoms help prevent transmission of HIV and other skin-to-skin STIs. -Woman's AIDS rates are increasing fastest, because virus is passed from man to woman more often

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Sexually Transmitted Infections (sub-heading)

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a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections

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AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

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What factors influence teenagers' sexual behaviors and use of contraceptives? - Adolescents' physical maturation fosters a sexual dimension to their emerging identity. Premarital sex varies across cultures. Twin research has found that environmental factors accounted for almost three-fourths of the individual variation in age of sexual initiation. Family and culture matters. -Minimal communication about birth control, guilt related to sexual activity, alcohol use, and mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity all contribute to teen pregnancy (media portraying casualness of sex and stuff) -Several factors that predict sexual restraint include high intelligence, religious engagement, father presence, and participation in service learning programs.

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Teen Pregnancy (sub-heading)

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What has research taught us about sexual orientation? -10 percent are exclusively homosexual. Most of today's psychologists therefor view sexual orientation as neither willfully chosen more willfully changed. Rates of depression are higher among gays and lesbians. Many psychologists believe that these symptoms result from bullying and harassment. Compared with men's sexual orientation, women's tends to be less strongly felt and may be more variable. -Men has lesser erotic plasticity (sexual variability)

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Sexual Orientation (heading)

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an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation).

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sexual orientation

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-Homosexuality is not linked to a child's relationship problems with parents, is not a fear or hatred of people of the other sex, not linked with levels of sex hormones currently in the blood, is not because as children, they were abused by an adult homosexual. -If there are environmental factors that influence sexual orientation, we do not yet know what they are.

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Environment and Sexual Orientation (sub-heading)

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-evidence of homosexuality in other species: Other species like swans, gorillas, and flamingos have the occasional same-sex relations. -gay-straight brain differences:the hypothalamus cell cluster seems to be reliably larger in heterosexual men than in women and homosexual men. LeVay believes it is more likely that brain anatomy influences sexual orientation. Another experiment shows that homosexual men's region in the brain that governs sexual arousal responds to other men's scents. Single men's brains did not. -genetics: family studies (homosexual men tend to have more homosexual relatives on their mother's side), twin studies (Identical twins are more likely than fraternal twins to share a homosexual orientation), and fruit fly studies (by altering a single gene, experimenters have changed sexual orientations of fruit flies) prenatal hormones: Exposure to hormone levels typically experienced by female fetuses during brain development may predispose a person to be attracted to males later in life. When pregnant sheep were injected with testosterone, their female offspring showed homosexual behavior. The mother's immune system may also play a role in the development of sexual orientation. Older brother effect is unclear (if you have older brother you are likely to become homosexual). It may be that after each pregnancy with a male fetus, the maternal antibodies may become stronger and may prevent the fetal brain from developing in a typical male pattern. -Gay-straight trait differences: Homosexuals were 39% more likely to not be right-handed.

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Biology and Sexual Orientation (sub-heading)

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There are three terms to describe the different stages of adulthood: early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood.

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Adulthood: Physical, Cognitive, and Social Development (module heading)

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What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood? -Our physical abilities all begin to decline in mid-twenties.

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Physical Development (heading)

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-During early and middle adulthood, physical vigor has less to do with age than with a person's health and exercise habits. Aging also brings a gradual decline in fertility, especially for women. -Women experience menopause. -With age, sexual activity lessens. But people are still able to. It was not until 75 or older that most women reported little sexual desire.

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Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood (sub-heading)

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-strength and stamina: Muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina diminish noticeably in late adulthood. -sensory abilities: visual sharpness diminishes and adaption to light are less acute, as well as smell and hearing -health: the body's disease-fighting immune system weakens, yet people over 65 suffer fewer short-term ailments like colds and the flu. -the aging brain: Older people take a bit more time to react, to solve perceptual puzzles, and even remember names. Slower neural processing combined with diminished sensory abilities can increase accident risks. -Exercise helps counteract some effects of brain aging. It stimulates the neural connections and promotes neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Exercise reduces risk of neurocognitive disorder (dementia).

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Physical Changes in later Life (sub-heading)

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How does memory change with age? -Older people will remember things from their twenties much better. -Younger adults vary in their abilities to learn and remember, but 70 year olds vary much more. -terminal decline is when cognitive decline typically accelerates in the last three or fours years of life.

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Cognitive Development in adulthood (heading)

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the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

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menopause

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a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

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cross-sectional study

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research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time

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longitudinal study

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What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death?

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Social Development (heading)

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As people enter their forties, they enter middle adulthood. The midlife transition is a crisis for some, a time a great struggle and regret. But the fact is that distress doesn't even peak anywhere in the midlife age range. -Life events triggers transitions to new life stages at varying ages.

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Adulthood's Ages and Stages (sub-heading)

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the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

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social clock

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Two basic aspects dominate adulthood according to Erikson: intimacy (forming close relationships) and generativity (being productive and supporting future generations). -Love: Adult bonds of love are most saitisfying and enduring when marked by a similarity of interests and values, intimate self-disclosure, etc., Those who have a "trial marriage" are more likely to divorce than those who do not. This is because they tend to be initially less committed to the idea of enduring marriage and they become less marriage supporting while cohabiting. One indicator of marital success are positive interactions like smiling, touching, and complimenting. -Work: In the end, happiness is about having work that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment.

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Adulthood's Commitments (sub-heading)

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Do self-confidence and life satisfaction vary with life stages? -From the teens to midlife, people typically experience a strengthening sense of identity, confidence, and self-esteem. In later life challenges arise: income shrinks, body deteriorates, and family members die or move away. Life satisfaction does decline as death approaches. -But worldwide, most over 65 year olds are not unhappy. They experience less intense anger and stress. -Moreover, at all ages, the bad feelings we associate with negative events fade faster than do the good feelings we associate with positive events. This contributes to most older people's sense that life has been mostly good.

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Well-Being Across the Life Spa (sub-heading)

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A loved one's death triggers what range of reactions? -When, as usually happens, death comes at an expected late-life time, grieving may be relatively short-lived. -Grief is especially severe when a loved one's death comes suddenly and before its expected time on the social clock. -Reactions to a loved one's death range more widely than most suppose. Some encourage public weeping, while others hide grief.

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Death and Dying (sub-heading)

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Developmental psychologist that studied children's cognitive development. He believed that a child's mind develops through a series of stages. He also believed that the maturing brain builds schemas.

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Jean Piaget

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Russian psychologist that studied how children think and learn. He emphasized how the child's mind grows through interaction with the social environment.

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Lev Vygotsky

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explored the rigid attachment process called imprinting during the critical period. He also discovered that species will imprint to a variety of moving objects like an animal of another species or a bouncing ball.

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Konrad Lorenz

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a University of Wisconsin psychologist that bred monkeys for their learning studies. They accidentally came to a discovery that baby monkeys preferred the comfy cloth mother (experiment).

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Harry Harlow

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a University of Wisconsin psychologist that bred monkeys for their learning studies. They accidentally came to a discovery that baby monkeys preferred the comfy cloth mother (experiment).

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Margaret Harlow

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designed the strange situation situation and came up with two types of attachment. There was secure attachment and insecure attachment. She found that sensitive, responsive mothers had infants who exhibited secure attachment.

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Mary Ainsworth

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researcher that came up with the three different types of parenting styles.

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Diana Baumrind

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Made connections to gender and social connectedness. She found that the struggle of creating a independent identity describes Western individualist males more than relationship-oriented females. She believes that females are more concerned with making connections.

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Carol Gilligan

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conducted the famous Bobo doll experiment and did lectures on "Psychology of Chance Encounters and Life Paths"

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Albert Bandura

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Described the development of moral reasoning. He posed moral dilemmas and asked children, adolescents, and adults whether the action was right or wrong. His finding led him to propose three basic level of moral thinking: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

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Lawrence Kohlberg

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Theorist that contended that each stage of life has its own psychosocial task, a crisis that needs resolution.

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Erik Erikson

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believed that two basic concepts of love and work dominate adulthood.

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Sigmund Freud

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