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the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

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learning

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decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

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habitutation

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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

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associative learning

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any event or situation that evokes a response

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stimulus

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the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

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cognitive learning

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. (aka conditioned stimulus)

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neutral stimulus

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in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food in mouth)

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unconditioned response

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically- triggers a response

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unconditioned stimulus

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in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

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conditioned response

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when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

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acquisition

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a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (second-order conditioning)

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higher-order conditioning

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the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

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extinction

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the reappearance,, after a pause, of an extinguished response

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spontaneous recovery

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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for a stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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generalization

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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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discrimination

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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law of effect

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in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

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operant chamber

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an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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shaping

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in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

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discriminative stimulus

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a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a certain type of map of it.

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cognitive map

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learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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latent learning

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the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

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learned helplessness

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the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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modeling

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frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitations and empathy

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mirror neurons

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the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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memory

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the processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning

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encoding

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the process of retaining encoded information over time

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storage

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the process of getting information out of memory storage

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retrieval

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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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sensory memory

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activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten (aka working memory)

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short-term memory

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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

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long-term memory

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memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."

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explicit memory

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unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning

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automatic processing

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retention independent of conscious recollection. (nondeclarative memory)

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implicit memory

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a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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iconic memory

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a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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echoic memory

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organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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chunking

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memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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mnemonic devices

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the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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spacing effect

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enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect

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testing effect

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encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

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shallow processing

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encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

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deep processing

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a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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flashbulb memory

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an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

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long-term potentiation

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a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

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recall

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a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

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recognition

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a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

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relearning

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our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

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serial position efect

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Recall is strongest for items at the end of a list

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recency effect

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the more accurate recall of items presented at the beginning of a series

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primacy effect

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an inability to form new memories

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anterograde amnesia

question

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

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retrograde amnesia

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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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misinformation effect

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attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

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source amnesia

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that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

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deja vu

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1891-1951; Field: Gastroenterology; Contributions: developed foundation for classical conditioning, discovered that a UCS naturally elicits a reflexive behavior; Studies: dog salivation

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Ivan Pavlov

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1878-1958; Field: behaviorism; Contributions: generalization-inductive reasoning, emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; Studies: Little Albert

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John B. Watson

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1904-1990; Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box

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BF Skinner

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proposed the law of effect, which states that a behavior is more likely to recur if reinforced

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Edward L. Thorndike

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Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

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John Garcia

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pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

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Albert Bandura

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1850-1909; Field: memory; Contributions: 1st to conduct studies on forgetting: first, a rapid loss followed by a gradual declining rate of loss; Studies: memory-series of meaningless syllables/words retention curve forgetting curve

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Hermann Ebbinghaus

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1944-present; Field: memory; Contributions: expert in eyewitness testimony (false memories or misinformation effect); Studies: Reconstruction of Auto. Destruction, Jane Doe Case (repressed memories of Nicole Taus' sex abuse)

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Elizabeth Loftus

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the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not with 2

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behaviorism

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the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

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parallel processing

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a neural center located into the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

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hippocampus

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A portion of the forebrain that coordinates muscle movement and routes information from the cortex to the brain and spinal cord.

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basal ganglia

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the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

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cerebellum

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two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

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amygdala

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the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

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priming

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in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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repression

question

the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US

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trace conditioning

question

CS and US are presented at the same time

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simultaneous conditioning

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US is presented first and is followed by the CS. This method is particularly ineffective 1.presentation of US 2.presentation of CS

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backward conditioning

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subjects can be taught to perform a number of responses successively in order to get a reward

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chaining

question

Money is a special kind of secondary reinforcer, called a generalized reinforcer, because it can be traded for virtually anything. One practical application of generalized reinforcers known as ___________ _______________. -a practical application of generalized reinforcers used in prisons, mental institutions, schools -every time people perform a desired behavior, they are given a token -can be traded for any one of a variety of reinforcers

answer

token economy

question

Even primary reinforcers, like food, will affect different animals in different ways depending, most notably, on how hungry they are. This idea that the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation, is expressed in the ________ ____________. -the reinforcing properties of something depend on the situation -whichever of two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce the other activity

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Premack Principle

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The tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior is called ________ ___________.

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instinctive drift

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He questioned Thorndike's conclusion that his animals learned mechanically through the selection of action of rewards and punishments (Hothersall , 1995). He attempted to prove that animals arrive at a solution through insight rather than trial and error. His first experiments with dogs and cats involved food being placed on the other side of a barrier. The dogs and cats went right towards the food instead of moving away from the goal to circumvent the barrier like chimps who were presented with this situation; chimps using sticks to get food.

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Wolfgang Kohler

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The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known. When you suddenly know an answer to a problem.

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insight learning

question

determines which sensory messages we encode. We encode what we are attending to or what is important to us.

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selective attention

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if you are talking with a friend and someone across the room says your name, our attention will probably involuntarily switch across the room. Once a sensory message entered sensory memory that you knew was important, you switched your attention to that message, and it was encoded into your short-term memory.

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cocktail party effect

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this is popularly defined as the ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory with extreme accuracy and in abundant volume. photographic memory

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eidetic memory

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Have you ever tried to remember someone's name and start listing things about their appearance or personality until you finally come up with the name? the temporary inability to remember information is sometimes called the ___________.

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tip of the tongue phenomenon

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detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic event that is vivid and remembered with confidence

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flashbulb memories

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false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occurred.

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constructed memory

question

associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral behavior

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classical conditioning

question

a behavior that is rewarded tends to be repeated, while a behavior that is not rewarded takes place only at random

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operant conditioning

question

the strengthening of a tendency to do something

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reinforcement

question

something necessary for psychological or physical survival that is used as a reward

answer

primary reinforcement

question

anything that comes to represent a primary reinforcer

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secondary reinforcement

question

something pleasant occurs when an action is performed, increasing the tendency to repeat it.

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positive reinforcement

question

something unpleasant is stopped if an action is performed

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negative reinforcement

question

a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated

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punishment

question

an aversive stimulus is applied

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positive punishment

question

a rewarding stimulus is removed

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negative punishment

question

each time a behavior occurs, reinforcement is given quick to learn easy to extinguish

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continuous

question

reinforcement is not given each time a behavior occurs longer lasting takes longer to learn

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partial

question

reinforcement occurs each time a desired behavior occurs, but a different number of the desired acts is required each time most addictive

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variable ratio

question

reinforcement occurs after the desired act is performed a specific number of times subject works quickly to get reinforcement

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fixed ratio

question

reinforcement occurs after a varying amount of time if the desired act occurs slow, stable response

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variable interval

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reinforcement is received after a fixed amount of time slow, stable

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fixed interval

question

organism observes and imitates the behavior of others -does not require reinforcement -Bobo Doll experiment -Clarks' Doll experiment

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observational learning

question

the hopelessness and passive resignation a subject learns when he/she is unable to avoid repeated aversive events

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learned helplessness

question

Who was the chief researcher for learned helplessness?

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Martin Seligman

question

Did research on social learning

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Albert Bandura

question

alert focusing on material to be retained

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selective attention

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To increase learning, do something that will cause physical __________. Use small doses of legal ___________. Be mildly ___________. Be ___________. Chew ________. _____________, and then engage in learning within 2-6 hours

answer

arousal stimulants anxious motivated gum exercise

question

Interferes with learning: Large doses of stimulants cause overstimulation and an inability to ________. ___________ anxiety blocks your ability to learn ______________found in prepared foods chemically depress your ability to form new synapses ________________ affect neurotransmitters necessary for learning

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focus severe preservatives depressants

question

material learned in one chemical state is best reproduced when the same state occurs again. (also true for context and mood)

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state learning

question

learning creates a chemical change in the neurons, and increased activity in a particular pathway causes synapses to form or strengthen.

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Long-term potentiation

question

over time, memory will solidify until permanent (sleep is the best)

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consolidation

question

it is better to practice over allotted time, rather than all at once

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spacing effect

question

practiced retrieval is more effective than rereading the material

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testing effect

question

Mental rehearsal is not as good as ___________, but it's better than nothing

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practice

question

learning is moved from one task to another based on similarities between the tasks

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transfer of training

question

transfer of learning that results from similarities between 2 tasks -shooting at targets

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positive transfer of training

question

interference with learning due to dissimilarities between 2 otherwise similar tasks -stick shift

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negative transfer of training

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disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of NEW information -You always park in the same spot; however, today that spot was taken, so you parked in a different spot. Due to this, you walk to your old spot to find your car.

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proactive interference

question

disruptive effect of new learning on recall of OLD information. -You played baseball for 10 years. This summer, you learned to golf. Your baseball swing will suffer due to the new motion of the golf swing

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retroactive interference

question

attaching the maximum number of associations to material to be learned so that it can be retrieved more easily

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elaboration

question

items are learned in groups 3s or 4s

answer

chunking

question

Mnemonic Devices: -create a visual representation -create a rhyme or jingle -create a word -make a sentence

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method of location peg word acronym narrative chaining

question

any indication that learning has persisted over time; the ability to store and retrieve information

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retention

question

the ability to bring back and integrate many specific learned details

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recall

question

the ability to pick the correct object or event from a list containing the correct answer

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recognition

question

direct receivers of information from the environment

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sensory memory system

question

a brief visual memory (3-4 seconds) that has the potential to go to STM

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iconic

question

brief sound memory (3-4 seconds) that has the potential to go to STM

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acoustic

question

retains information for a few seconds to a few minutes Can only hold ___________ items

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short-term memory 7 (+/-2)

question

retains information for days, weeks, months, years, decades and is a limitless storehouse

answer

long-term memory

question

memory of general knowledge or experienced events (episodic memory) LTM

answer

explicit memory

question

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort LTM goes with explicit memory

answer

effortful processing

question

retention without conscious recollection LTM goes with automatic processing

answer

implicit memory

question

unconscious encoding of incidental or well-learned information

answer

automatic processing

question

What is the first step of the retention process?

answer

input information

question

encode information based on meaning (deep processing) -best chance of being recalled

answer

semantic encoding

question

encode information based on sound (shallow processing)

answer

acoustic encoding

question

encode information based on images

answer

visual encoding

question

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

answer

serial position effect

question

What are the 3 steps of the retention process?

answer

1. input information-encoding 2.retain information-storage 3.output information-retrieval

question

an increase in errors when trying to bring material back from memory (retrieval failure)

answer

forgetting

question

-interruption of the electrical activity in the brain, either from a shock or concussion. -repression -amnesia -storage decay

answer

causes of forgetting

question

a defense mechanism that banished anxiety-arousing memories form consciousness

answer

repression

question

blocking old memories

answer

retrograde

question

loss of new ones

answer

anterograde

question

basically, use it or lose it

answer

storage decay

question

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. in the amygdala

answer

flash bulb memory

question

longer than normal iconic memory allows more details to encode into STM (1 minute or more). Extremely rare

answer

photographic memory

question

Eyewitness Testimony: -Because the witness is under _________, perception is often faulty -Witnesses will use ______ to fill-in missing details

answer

stress LTM

question

1. feelings and thoughts that you have been in the situation before. 2. Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience 3. In other words, information is processed backwards SMS-->STM-->LTM

answer

deja vu

AP Psychology Conditioning, Learning, and Retention – Flashcards

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