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Chapter 5: Approving and Assessing the Quality of Behavioral Measurement

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CH. 5

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Indicators of Trustworthy Measurement

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Validity: -Direct measures of a socially significant behavior -Measures a dimension of the behavior relevant to the question -Ensures that the data are representative Accuracy: -Observed values match the true values of an event Reliability: -Measurement yields the same values across repeated measures of the same event

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Threats to Measurement Validity (TEST)

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Indirect Measurement: Can confound things -Measuring a behavior other than the behavior of interest -Requires inferences be made about the relationship between those behaviors -Must provide evidence that the behavior measured is directly related to behavior of interest -Measuring a dimension that is irrelevant or ill suited to the reason for measuring behavior -Measurement artifacts

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Measurement Artifacts

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Misleading data that result from the way behavior is measured: -Discontinuous measurement -Poorly scheduled observations -Insensitive or limiting measurement scales

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Threats to Measurement Accuracy and Reliability

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Human error Poorly designed measurement systems: -Cumbersome (awkward, doesn't make sense) -Difficult to use -Complex Inadequate observer training (don't tell person to look at what they are supposed to): Can be combated by: -Explicit and systematic -Careful selection -Train to competency standard -On-going training to minimize observer drift Unintended influences on observers: -Observer expectations of what the data should look like -Observer reactivity when she/he is aware that others are evaluating the data -Measurement bias -Feedback to observers about how their data relates to the goals of intervention

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Assessing the Accuracy and Reliability of Behavioral Measurement

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-First, design a good measurement system -Second, train observers carefully -Third, evaluate extent to which data are accurate and reliable

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Assessing the Accuracy of Measurement

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Accuracy means the observed values match the true values of an event No one wants to base research conclusions or treatment decisions on faulty data Four purposes of accuracy assessment: 1.) Determine if data are good enough to make decisions 2.) Discovery and correction of measurement errors 3.) Reveal consistent patterns of measurement error (accurate=same error every time) 4.) Assure consumers that data are accurate

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Accuracy Assessment Procedures

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Measurement is accurate when observed values match true values: -Accuracy determined by calculating correspondence of each data point with its true value -Process for determining true value must differ from measurement procedures -Accuracy assessment should be reported in research

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Assessing the Reliability of Measurement

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Measurement is reliable when it yields the same values across repeated measures of the same event

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Using Inter-observer Agreement to Assess Behavior Measurement

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The degree to which two or more independent observers report the same values for the same events

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Benefits of Inter-observer Agreement (IOA)

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Determine competence of new observers Detect observer drift Judge clarity of definitions and system Increase believability of data

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Requisites for IOA

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Observers must: -Use the same observation code and measurement system -Observe and measure the same participants and events -Observe and record independently of one another

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Methods for Calculating IOA

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Percentage of agreement is most common Event Recording methods compare: -Total count recorded by each observer -Mean count-per-interval -Exact count-per-interval -Trial-by-trial (Discrete trial type thing "put coat on") Timing recording methods: -Total duration IOA -Mean durations-per-occurrence IOA ---Latency-per-response (How long before they respond) ---Mean IRT-per-response (Average duration before response) Interval recording and Time sampling: -Interval-by-interval (Point by point)

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Considerations in IOA (Have to be on the same page to get good results)

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-During each condition and phase of a study -Distributed across days of the week, time of day, settings, obervers -Minimum of 20% of sessions, preferably 25-30% -More frequent with complex systems (record more) -Obtain and report IOA at the same levels at which researchers will report and discuss in study results for each behavior and for each participant and in each phase of intervention or baseline -More conservative methods should be used -Methods that will overestimate actual agreement should be avoided -If in doubt, can report more than one calculation -Believability of data increases as agreement approaches 100% -History of using 80% agreement as acceptable benchmark (depends upon the complexity of the measurement system) -Reporting IOA (Narrative form, table, graphs) -In all formats, report how, when, and how often IOA was assessed

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---Types of Graphs Utilized in ABA Standard Celeration Chart

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Four standard charts: (Difference in scaling on horizontal axis) 1.) Daily chart (140 calendar days) 2.) Weekly chart 3.) Monthly chart 4.) Yearly chart What's standard about the standard celeration chart? -Consistent display of celeration

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Types of Graphs Utilized in ABA Standard Celeration Chart

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Celeration: -Linear measure of frequency change across time -A factor by which frequency multiples or divides per unit of time ---Acceleration- accelerating performance ---Deceleration- decelerating performance Standard chart: -Six, X 10 cycles (vertical axis) -1 per 24 hrs -1,000 minutes per day approximately

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Standard Celeration Chart and Precision Teaching

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Precision Teaching: -Instructional decision-making system -Developed for use with standard celeration chart Position: -Learning best measured as a change in response rate -Learning most often occurs through proportional changes in behavior Past changes can predict future learning Chart uses estimations for most frequency values

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Constructing Line Graphs Drawing, scaling, ; labeling axes

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Good Practice: Plot the data set against several different vertical axis scales - watch for distortion that may lead to inaccurate interpretations Scaling of vertical axis Most significant feature of the graph Mark the origin at zero Mark the full range of values represented in the data set If relatively small changes in performance are socially significant Y-Axis should reflect a smaller range of values

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Constructing Line Graphs

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Condition Change Lines: Vertical lines Extend upward Indicate change in treatment or experimental condition Solid or dashed lines Major changes - solid Minor changes - dashed Asterisks (*), arrows () or other symbols to indicate small changes

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Constructing Line Graphs Data Points ; Data Paths

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DO NOT CONNECT DATA POINTS IF... Points fall on either side of a condition change line A significant span of time passed and behavior was not measured There was a discontinuity in time in the horizontal axis (e.g., school vacation) Data were not collected, lost, etc. It is follow-up or post-check data Unless intersession time span same as original experiment Data points fall beyond the values described by the vertical axis

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Constructing Line Graphs Data Points ; Data Paths

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Use different styles of lines for multiple data paths on the same graph Figure caption -Printed below the graph -Concise, complete description of figure ----Direct viewers attention to features of the graph that may be overlooked ----E.g., scale changes ----Describe the meaning of any added symbols Print graphs in one color - black

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Interpreting Graphically Displayed Behavioral Data

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Visual analysis -Did behavior change in a meaningful way? ---If so, to what extent can that change in behavior be attributed to the independent variable? ALWAYS LOOK AT (TEST): -Variability-Nature & extent of variability in the data -Level -Trend

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Interpreting Graphically Displayed Behavioral Data

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Level: -Value on the vertical axis around which a series of data points converge -Stability: When data points fall at or near a specific level -Mean or median lines: Added to represent overall average or typical performance ---Use with caution - can obscure important variability

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Interpreting Graphically Displayed Behavioral Data

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Trend: -Overall direction taken by the data path ---Direction: Increasing, decreasing, or zero trend ---Degree: Gradual or steep ---Extent of variability (how much does it change)

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CHAPTER 11

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Ch. 11

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Positive Reinforcement- Definition

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-Stimulus presented -Contingent on a response occurring -Which increases the future probability of the next response

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The Discriminated Operant

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AKA: The three term contingency EO (need to be motivated) --> SD--> Response --> SR+ (the reinforcer)

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The Role of Antecedent Stimuli

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-Reinforcement depends on motivation -The SD will only signal the response if the individual is motivated to engage in the response -Motivating Operations (MOs): ---Alter the reinforcing effectiveness of stimuli, and thus alter the momentary frequency of responses reinforced by those stimuli

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The Four-Term Contingency

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The consideration of MOs are important in relation to the three-term contingency

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Immediacy of Reinforcement

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It is critical that the consequence is delivered immediately following the target response Problems with delays in reinforcement: ---Other behaviors occur during the delay ---The behavior temporarily closest to the presentation of the reinforcer will be strengthened

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Delayed Reinforcement

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Does not necessarily reinforce the target behavior; rather influences it Instructional Control/Rule Following: -Rule: Verbal description of a behavioral contingency -Can allow delayed consequences to influence behavior

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"Rule-Governed Behavior"

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If-then statements (if you are violent, then you will lose a token) Indicators: -No immediate consequence apparent -Response-consequence delay ; 30 sec -Large increase in frequency of the behavior occurs following one instance of reinforcement -No consequence for the behavior exists (including no automatic reinforcement), but rule does

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Superstitious Behavior

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Poker players- won't change their lucky underwear for 3 days if they're winning Occurs when reinforcement "accidentally" follows a behavior that did not produce the reinforcement -Sports players who equate putting on a certain pair of socks with winning a game (leading to the "lucky socks" idea)

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Automatic Reinforcement

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Reinforcement that occurs independent of another person delivering it (turn on lights) The response, itself, produces the reinforcement Ex: Wiggling your leg during a boring lecture to stimulate yourself and stay awake -Note: This does not mean that the behaviors are automatic or reflexive; rather that the consequences are delivered automatically (stomach grumbling in an anorexic individual)

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Reinforcers by Origin

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Unconditioned Reinforcers (AKA primary or unlearned reinforcers) -Food, sex, shelter, water, warmth, human touch -Function as reinforcers due to heredity/evolution -Do not require any learning history to become reinforcers

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Reinforcers by Origin

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Conditioned Reinforcers (AKA secondary or learned reinforcers) -Everything else! Neutral stimuli that begin to function as reinforcers because they have been paired with other reinforcers (either conditioned or unconditioned)

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Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers

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A type of conditioned reinforcer that has been paired with many conditioned and unconditioned reinforcers -Do not depend on a specific EO to be effective -Ex: money, points

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Types of Reinforcers by Formal Properties

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Edible reinforcers (food) Sensory reinforcers (massage, tickles) Tangible reinforcers (toys, trinkets) Activity reinforcers (playing a game, recess) Social reinforcers (physical proximity, social interaction)

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Identifying Potential Reinforcers

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It is important to identify reinforcers empirically -Staff, parents, teachers, and even children themselves who report what they believe to be reinforcers are often wrong Two strategies to use in tandem 1.) Stimulus preference assessments 2.) Reinforcer assessments

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Caveats Regarding Preference/Reinforcement Assessments

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Preferences change over time- evaluate frequency Preference assessments do not identify the reinforcing effects of stimuli -Just because people prefer paper towels to hot-air hand dryers in public restrooms doesn't mean they'll work to earn paper towels!

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Stimulus Preference Assessments

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Identify: -Stimuli a person prefers -Relevant preference values (how much do you like this, how much will you work for this? Preference from 0-100) -Conditions under which these preferences hold true THREE CATEGORIES: -Asking about stimulus preferences -Observing the target person under free-operant conditions (freely choosing what they want as much as they want) -Presenting various stimuli in a series of trial-based observations

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Asking About Stimulus Preferences

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Ask the target person: -Open-ended questions (What would you like to work for)? -Asking about specific items (How would you like to work for stickers)? -Choice format (Would you rather work for things to eat or things to do)? -Rank order format (Put these items/activities in order from which you'd like to work for most to which you'd like to work for least)

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Free-Operant Observation

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-Observing and recording what activities the target person engages in when he/she has unrestricted choice of activities -No response requirements -All stimuli available within sight and reach -Items are never removed -Can be contrived or naturalistic

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Trial-Based Methods

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General procedure: -Present selected stimuli to children in a series of trials -Measure the approach (hand reach, eye gaze), contact (touch/hold object), and/or engagement (interacting with stimulus) -Can categorize as high, medium, and low preference Many variations for procedure

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Guidelines for Selecting and Using Stimulus Preference Assessments

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-Monitor target person's activities prior to assessment to be aware of EOs that may affect results (When JD eats a lot at school and doesn't want food reinforcers at the office) -Balance cost-benefits of procedures (time to do vs. level of confidence) -Balance rankings vs. no rankings with shifts of preference -When time is limited, use fewer stimuli in array -When possible, combine data from multiple assessment procedures

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Reinforcer Assessment

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A direct, data-based method in which: -One or more stimuli are presented -Contingent on a target response, and -Observing whether an increase in responding occurs Allows you to verify/confirm whether a stimulus functions as a reinforcer

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12 Guidelines for Using Reinforcement Effectively

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1.) Choose reinforcers relevant to current or creditable EOs 2.) Maintain establishing operations 3.) Use high-quatlity reinforcers of sufficient magnitude 4.) Set an easily achieved ignition criterion for reinforcement (1-100). Criterion should be less than or equal to best performance during baseline 5.) Explain the contingency and provide prompts to respond 6.) Deliver the reinforcer immediately following behavior 7.) Reinforce each occurrence of the behavior initially 8.) Use direct rather than indirect reinforcement contingencies 9.) Gradually increase response-to-reinforcement delay 10.) Use varied reinforcers 11.) Use contingent praise and attention 12.) Shift from contrived to naturally occurring reinforcers

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Chapter 14

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Punishment by stimulus presentation

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Introduction

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Learning from the consequences that produce pain or discomfort has survival value for the individual and for the species -Need a replacement behavior Punishment should teach us not to repeat responses that cause us harm

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Punishment is...

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-Poorly understood, frequently misapplied, and controversial -As a principle of behavior, punishment is not about punishing the person -Punishment is a "response that leads to a consequence" contingency that suppresses the future frequency of similar responses

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Definitions and Nature of Punishment

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Operations and Defining Effect of Punishment: Punishment has occurred when a response is followed immediately by a stimulus change that decreases the future frequency of similar responses

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Positive and Negative Punishment

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Positive Punishment: Presentation of a stimulus immediately following a behavior that results in a decrease in the frequency of the behavior (spanking is an example-adding the spank to decrease the behavior) Negative Punishment: The termination or removal of an already present stimulus immediately following a behavior that results in a decrease in the future frequency of the behavior (taking away toys, video games, etc. and removal of desirable object, for example)

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Definitions and Nature of Punishment

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Discriminative Effects of Punishment: If punishment occurs only in some stimulus conditions and not in others, the suppressive effects of punishment will be more prevalent under those conditions SD (command) -;R (response) -;SR (consequence) (the SR may be an SP) which could become an SDP (Consequence may become a punishing consequence instead of a reinforcing consequence)

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Recovery from Punishment

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-When punishment is discontinued, its suppressive effects on responding are usually NOT permanent -Sometimes the rate of responding after punishment is discontinued will not only recover but also briefly exceed the level at which it was occurring prior to punishment

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Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishers

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A punisher is a stimulus change that immediately follows the occurrence of a behavior and reduces the future frequency of that type of behavior Unconditioned punisher: A stimulus whose presentation functions as punishment without having been paired with any other punishers (food, water, pain. basic needs) Conditioned punisher: A stimulus change that functions as punishment as a result of a person's conditioning history (everything else) Say something and follow through with it

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Definitions and Nature of Punishment: Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishers

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-A stimulus change that has even paired with numerous forms of conditioned and conditioned punishers becomes a generalized conditioned punisher (eyebrows go up) -Generalized conditioned punishers are free from the control of specific motivating conditions and will function as punishment under most conditions

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Important:

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Punishers, like reinforcers, are not defined by their physical properties, but by their function on the behavior

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Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Punishment:

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1.) Immediacy of punishment: Maximum suppressive effects are obtained if the punishment occurs as soon as possible after the occurrence of a target response 2.) Intensity of punishment: The more intense the punishing stimulus, the greater it will reduce future responding 3.) Schedule or frequency of punishment/Continuous punishment: High response suppression, but allows for rapid recovery when the punishment contingency is removed. High intensity consistently.

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Definitions and Nature of Punishment

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Possible side effects and problems with punishment: 1.) Elcitation of undesirable emotional response and aggression 2.) Escape and Avoidance: as the intensity of the punisher increases, so does the likelihood to escape and avoid. These can be minimized by providing alternative responses that come into contact with reinforcement and avoid the punisher. 3.) Increase rate of the problem behavior under non punishment (I got away with it feeling b/c punisher isn't constant and immediate) 4.) Modeling undesirable behavior 5.) Not teaching the learner what to do instead as a replacement behavior 6.) Overusing of punishment because the negative reinforcement it provides the punishing agent

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Possible Side Effects and Problems with Punishment

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4.) Punishment may involve undesirable modeling -Punishment tactics may model undesirable behaviors -Two decades of research have found strong correlation between young children's expose to harsh and excessive punishment and antisocial behavior and conduct disorders as adolescents and adults

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Examples of Positive Punishment Interventions: Reprimands

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Telling someone no following the occurrence of misbehavior is an example of attempted positive punishment Reprimands given repeatedly may lead to the subject habituating to the stimulus (decrease responding and doesn't stop behavior because you're used to the punisher)

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Examples of Positive Punishment Interventions: Response Blocking

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1.) Physically intervening as soon as the person begins to emit the problem behavior to prevent or "block" the completion of the response has been shown to be effective in reducing the frequency of some problem behaviors. (Blocking the door/locking the door to prevent person from fleeing) 2.) Response blocking as a treatment intervention must be approached with great care 3.) Side effects such as aggression and resistance to the response blocking procedure have occurred in some studies (If you physically assist to the person they may resist and aggress)

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Examples of Positive Punishment Interventions: Contingent (you can't do this if you're doing this) Exercise

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An intervention in which a person is required to perform a response that is not topographically related to the problem behavior (nail biting replace with painting nails or trimming nails-an alternate behavior)

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Examples of Positive Punishment Interventions: Overcorrection

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A behavior change tactic based on positive punishment in which the learner is required to engage in effortful behavior that is directly or logically related to the problem -Two forms: Restitutional (showing person how to do things right) and Positive Practice

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Restitutional Overcorrection

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Contingent on the problem behavior, the learner is required to repair or return the environment to its original state and then to engage in additional behavior bring the environment to a condition vastly

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Postive Practice Overcorrection

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Contingent on an occurrence of the target behavior the learner is required to repeat a correct form of the behavior

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Contingent Electric Stimulation

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-46 studies have demonstrated that contingent electric stimulation can be a sage and highly effective method for suppressing chronic and life-threatening SIB -SIB Inhibiting System: One of the most rigorously researched and carefully applied procedures for implementing punishment by electric stimulation for self-inflicted blows to the head or face

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Select Effective and Appropriate Punishers

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Punishment as a part of a behavior change program has nothing to do with retribution 1.) Punishment is not about threats 2.) When punishers are threatened and not delivered, the child learns that your verbal threats are not associated with the actual punishing behavior (not following through=child not taking you seriously and not listening)

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Select Effective and Appropriate Punishers

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Consider using varied punishers 1.) Varying the form of the punishing stimulus enhances the punishing effect 2.) It appears that by presenting a varied format of commonly used punishers, inappropriate behaviors may further decrease without the use of more intrusive punishment procedures

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Use the LEAST INTENSIVE PUNISHMENT that is Effective

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1.) Ethical guidelines and the doctrine of the least restrictive alternative demand that the most effective, but least intrusive, form of punishment be used initially Questions to answer when deciding on a form of punishment: - Will this form of punishment suppress the behavior? - Will this form of punishment be controlled from the application to application? - Punishment is more effective when the stimulus is delivered at its optimum level initially than when its intensity is gradually increased over time

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Guidelines for Using Punishment Effectively: Experience the Punishment Personally

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1.) Practitioners should experience any punisher personally before the treatment begins 2.) Doing this reminds the practitioner that the technique produces physical discomfort

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Deliver the Punishment Immediately

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Every instance of the inappropriate behavior should be punished, every single one.

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Deliver the Punishment at the Beginning of the Response Chain

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As much as practical, punishment should occur early in the behavioral sequence rather than later

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Deliver the Punishment Unemotionally

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-Punishment should be delivered in the business-like, matter-of-fact manner (this doesn't phase me) -Resist statements such as "I told you so." "Now you've gone and done it." and "What do you have to say for yourself?" (These do not go anywhere, don't say these)

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Ethical Considerations Regarding the Use of Punishment: Right to Safe and Humane Treatment

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1.) The first ethical canon and responsibility for any human services program is DO NO HARM

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Ethical Considerations Regarding the Use of Punishment: Least Restrictive Alternative

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1.) The less intrusive procedures should be used first

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Ethical Considerations Regarding the Use of Punishment: Right to Effective Treatment

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1.) Research supported

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Ethical Considerations Regarding the Use of Punishment: Developing and Using a Punishment Policy and Procedural Safeguards

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1.) Follow a written policy, consult agencies

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Concluding Perspectives

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Interventions featuring positive punishment should be treated as defaulted

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Definition of Punishment by Removal of a Stimulus

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Stimulus removed Contingent upon a response That decreases the future probability of that response The future decreases...

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Time-Out From Positive Reinforcement

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The withdrawal of the opportunity to earn positive reinforcement or the loss of access to reinforcers for a specified period of time...

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Important Aspects of Time-Out

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The loss of access to reinforcement must be contingent upon a target behavior There is a resultant decrease in the future probability of the behavior

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Time-Out Procedures

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Nonexclusion: -Planned ignoring -Withdrawal of a specific positive reinforcer -Contingent observation -Time-out ribbon (no one talk to them or look at them) Exclusion: -Out of the environment/time-out room -Partition or hallway time-out

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Non exclusion Time-Out

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The individual is not completely removed physically from the environment -A time-out chair inside the room ...

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Planned Ignoring

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Social reinforcers- usually attention, physical contact, or verbal interaction- are removed for a brief period -Systematically looking away from the student -Remaining quiet -Refraining from any interaction for a specified period of time- SILENT TREATMENT Planned ignoring is: -Nonintrusive -Quick -Convenient -Give attention to one child and commend their attention to make the other student want that same commendation

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Withdrawal of a Specific Positive Reinforcer

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Some sort of positive reinforcer that is already present is removed for a brief period of time contingent upon a target behavior, and then reinstated -Taking away a phone, book Can be implemented as a group contingency -Take away recess, make them last in line

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Time-Out Ribbon- Nonexclusionary

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...

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Exclusion Time-Out

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The individual is removed, physically, from the environment for a specified period of time Contingent upon the occurrence of a target behavior -Time-out room -Separated by partition -Placed in hallway

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Time-Out Room

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-A confined space outside the individual's normal educational or treatment environment -It is devoid of any positive reinforcers; also minimally furnished -It is safe (adequate heat and light), secure (but not locked) and temporary -Near time-in setting

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Advantages of Time-Out Rooms

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1.) Opportunity to acquire reinforcement is eliminated or reduced substantially 2.) After a few exposures, students learn to discriminate it from other rooms (making the time-in setting more desirable) 3.) Decrease risk of student hurting other students

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Disadvantages of Time-Out Rooms

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1.) Must escort students to time-out 2.) May result in resistance, emotional outbursts 3.) Access to ongoing instruction is prohibited 4.) Individuals may engage in behaviors (SIB) that should be stopped but go undetected 5.) Negative public perception

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Partition Time-Out

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-Individual in time-in setting ,but his view within the setting is restricted by a partition, wall, or cubicle -Advantage: Keeps individual in instructional setting -Disadvantage: Individual still may be able to obtain covert reinforcement, negative public perception (throwing wall down)

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Hallway Time-Out

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Individual sits in hallway outside of classroom or treatment area Not highly recommended strategy -Individual can obtain reinforcement from a multitude of sources -Child can escape easily

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Desirable Aspects of Time-Out

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1.) Ease of application (especially non exclusion time-out) 2.) Acceptability (especially non exclusion) 3.) Rapid suppression of problem behavior 4.) Easily combined with other procedures, such as differential reinforcement

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Effective Use of Time-Out

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Reinforce and enrich the time-in environment -Utilize differential reinforcement to reinforce alternative and incompatible behaviors Clearly define the behaviors leading to time-out -All partied (including the target individual)... Define procedures for the duration of time-out -Initial duration should be short to get the point across Define exit criteria -If individual is misbehaving when time-out ends, it should be continued until inappropriate behavior ceases

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Effective Use of Time-Out

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Exclusion vs. non exclusion... Apply consistently Evaluate effectiveness -Target behavior should decrease -Track frequency and duration of time outs -Also track collateral behaviors for side effects Consider other responses/ethical concerns

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Response Cost

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Loss of a specific amount of reinforcement Contingent upon a target behavior Reduces the future probability of the target behavior ex: Loss of awards, money, stickers, tokens, etc -Your response has cost you 5 minutes of recess

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Desirable Aspects of Response Cost

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-Produces rapid decreases in the target behavior -Convenient and easy to implement (can be incorporated into existing token or allowance programs) -Is easily combined with other approaches (such as differential reinforcement)

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Methods of Response Cost

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Direct fine Bonus response cost Combined with positive reinforcement Group arrangements

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Fines

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...

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Chapter 21

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Extinction

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Extinction Definition

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-A procedure in which reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is stopped or discontinued. As a result, occurrences of that behavior decreased in future -A procedure that provides zero probability of reinforcement -The effectiveness of extinction is dependent on: 1.) Clearly identifying the SR (reinforcing consequence) what are they doing this for? 2.) Consistent application of the procedure (everyone has to ignore, no one can give attention-all be on same page)

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Note

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-Extinction does not require the application of aversive stimuli to decrease behavior -The extinction procedure does not precent episodes of problem behaviors -The environment is changed so that the problem behavior will no longer produce the maintaining consequences

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Misuses of the term "extinction"

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1.) Using extinction to refer to any decrease in behavior (it's really punishment) -Some use the term extinction when referring to any decrease response performance, regardless of what produced the behavior change 2.) Confusing forgetting (in forgetting, a behavior is weakened by the passage... 3.) Confusing response blocking which prevents the occurrence of the target behavior and sensory extinction (which is the process by which behaviors maintained by automatic reinforcement are put on extinction by removing the sensory consequence) 4.) Confusing non-contingent reinforcement (NCR- things that happen in the environment) and extinction -NCR does not withhold the reinforcers that maintain the problem behavior

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Extinction Effects

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-Extinction effects have not been documented clearly in applied settings -Practitioners should view all of the following comments on the extinction effects tentatively when they relate to behavioral interventions or applied research -Gradual decrease in frequency and amplitude -Often difficult for teachers and parents to apply because of the initial increase in frequency and magnitude called Extinction Burst and the gradual decrease in behavior that follows the burst ---There's an immediate increase in the frequency of the response after the removal of the positive, negative, or automatic reinforcement... They need something quicker in other words which is where...

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Extinction Effects

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-Problem behaviors can worsen during extinction before they show improvement -Good news! Extinction bursts usually suggest that the reinforcer(s) maintaining the problem behavior was successfully identified, indication that there is a good chance of an effective intervention

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Spontaneous Recovery

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The behavior that diminished during the extinction process recurs even though the behavior does not produce reinforcement Short-lived and limited if the extinction procedure remains in effect

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Variables Affecting Resistance to Extinction

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Resistance to extinction -How much there is continues responding during the extinction process -Behavior that continues to occur during extinction is..

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Variables Affecting Resistance to Extinction

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A.) Intermittent reinforcement may produce behavior with: Greater resistance to extinction than the resistance produced by continuous reinforcement (something that has been intermittently reinforced is harder to get rid of) B.) Some intermittent schedules may produce more resistant than others C.) Establishing operations (how motivated someone is) -Resistance to extinction is greater when extinction is carried out under high motivation than under low

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Response Effort

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The effort required for a response apparently influences its resistance to extinction -A response requiring great effort diminishes more quickly during extinction than a response requiring less effort

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10 Guidelines for Application of Extinction

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-Withholding all possible sources of reinforcers maintaining the problem behavior -Withholding reinforcement consistently (the single most difficult aspect of extinction) -Combining extinction with other procedures (differential reinforcement or other behavior) -Using instructions (describe the extinction procedure to students) -Planning for extinction-produced aggression (behaviors that did not occur much in the past can resurface when doing extinction and are often aggressive be prepared) -Increasing the number of extinction trials -Including significant others in extinction (all people working with subject must practice extinction) -Guarding against unintentional extinction (common to give the most attention to problems and forget about the desirable behavior subject has just engaged DONT DO THAT)

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