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Chapter 7

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Complex Cognitive Processes

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Metacognition

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Knowledge and beliefs about cognitive processes -Thinking about thinking -Controlling thinking -Engaging in behaviors that facilitate thinking and learning Greater metacognitive awareness=more likely to use effective strategies and have high achievement

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Metacognition (2)

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Thinking about one's thinking -Knowledge of oneself as a learner (average, above average, etc.) -Knowledge of strategies for success -Knowledge of when one should use those strategies (are you just underlining?) Aspects: -Planning -Monitoring -Evaluatng

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Frontal Lobes and Cognition

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Example video: Man had a stroke which damaged his frontal lobes. Frontal lobes distinguish us from other animals and are crucial to development http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=1614

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Developmental Trends (Young and Grade School Children)

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Young children have a limited ability -Tend to overestimate their knowledge -Think that learning is passive Grade school children begin to see learning as an active, constructive process -However, there's still a belief in absolute truth (believing anything you tell them) Frontal lobe continues to develop after a child is born, which is why they should be in a stimulating environment

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Developmental Trends (Middle and High Schoolers)

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Middle schoolers knowledge resembles a collection of facts -They begin to see knowledge as subjective -But still use relatively ineffective strategies High schoolers have emerging understanding of how to be effective learners, thinkers -Know learning takes time and practice -Know ideas should be evaluated Often, teachers don't think to teach learning strategies

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Effective Learning Strategies

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Overt (Active) -Taking notes -Creating summaries Covert Strategies (Mental) -Identifying important information -Regularly monitoring your learning --Selfexplanation (what something means) --Selfquestioning (why does this matter?)

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Factors Affecting Strategy Use

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Nature of the task (how difficult, easy, etc) -Including cognitive load (effort in the mental process) Recognition that current strategies are ineffective (example, changing highlight method to concept maps) Specific motives and goals Instruction and guidance on strategy use Epistemic Beliefs -Beliefs about the natural of knowledge and learning (example, history is merely a collection of facts, dates, wars which is not true)

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Epistemic Beliefs

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J:The Canadians don't have as much history as we do M:Of course they do. J:No, they don't. They haven't had as many wars. M: History is more than wars. J: Yeah, but the rest of that stuff is boring. This shows a misconception within epistemic beliefs

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Helping Students to Develop Epistemic Beliefs

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-Knowledge involves not only knowing facts, concepts, and ideas but also understanding (Example, famines of North Korea and Ireland related) -Learning involves an active construction of knowledge -Knowledge doesn't always mean having clear-cut answers to difficult, complex issues, and sometimes involves critically evaluating evidence (much harder now because of the internet) -Mastering a body of information or a complex skill often requires hard work and persistence -Collective knowledge is dynamic and evolving

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Metacognitive Strategies in the Digital Age

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More than ever, students need to learn to: -Identify key words to use in a search for particular information -Make good choices about paths and hotlinks to follow -Critically evaluate available information

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Reciprocal Teaching

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Teacher facilitates 1)Prediction: Guessing what a story will be about, should do this before and after, then accept/reject your predictions 2)Clarify: Clearing up what you don't understand 3)Questioning: Deeper questions, like the author's purpose 4)Summarizing: Briefly stating the main ideas

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Metacognitive Strategies in the Digital Age (2)

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More than ever, students need to: -Monitor their progress toward achieving key goals for their learning efforts (it's easy to get distracted) -Make adjustments in their goals and search strategies as new information comes to light -Compare, contrast, and synthesize information obtained from two or more sources

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Diversity, Disabilities, and Exceptional Abilities

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Cultural differences in students' epistemic beliefs -Definition and purpose of learning -Role of effort -Learning strategies Students with disabilities may need explicit instruction and scaffolding

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Knowledge Transfer

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Positive Transfer: -Something we learned before helps us to learn something new Negative Transfer: -Something we've learned before makes it harder for us to learn something new (example, since the month and date position are switched in the Ireland, it was hard for the professor to know when her green card interview was)

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Knowledge Transfer (2)

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General Transfer: -Earlier learning affects learning and performance in somewhat different situations (example, Social Studies to Science). This is usually general strategies like note taking. Specific Transfer: Earlier learning affects learning and performance in a similar situation. New content overlaps with what we learned before. This is more typical for academic content.

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Factors Affecting Transfer

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-Meaningfulness of the original learning -Similarity to the original learning -Material --Principles, theories, more easily transferred than discrete facts or task-specific procedures -Relevance: context free material more easily transferred than context-bound -Opportunities to practice -Cultural Environment and expectations (elementary teachers teach interdisciplinarily, while in high school, students switch classes which is not conducive to transfer)

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Transfer Isn't Always Easily

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-Students at Carnegie Mellon were asked: 1) An army general needs a force of 100 men to capture a village, but the road is blocked --->100/10=split up. 2)A surgeon's patient has a tumor, and need 28g of medicine, but can't have too much at once because it will damage his tissues --->Give small doses However, students had trouble transferring the concepts between problems

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Types of Transfer

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1)Low Road Transfer: automatic application of previously learned skills (no hammer, so you can use a rock to insert nail) 2)High Road Transfer: deliberate application of previously learned strategy or knowledge to a new problem (example, problem of army men and medication)

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Problem Solving

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Problems have: -An initial state -A desired state -A path for reaching that outcome Example: You're a first year student at Rutgers (initial state) and you want to graduate in four years (desired state). You study and go to class (a path for reaching that outcome)

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What is a problem?

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-It is the gap between our current state and our desired end state -The problem of the farmer and his possession illustrates this

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Farmer Scenario

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A farmer wants to travel, but he has a boat, chicken, and chicken grain. It could only hold one of his possessions. He could not leave the chicken with the dog, nor the chicken with the grain. How did he safely get across the river? -We think of problem solving as a forward process, but sometimes you need to go backward

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A Problem

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Men wanted to break into a fortress to invade a village, but entire army can't go in all at once. -Divide into groups of 10 -This is an example of a problem (convergent schema)

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Doctor and Patient Problem

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Need to administer small doses of ray at a time

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Problem Solving

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Well-defined problems: -Clearly stated goals -Information needed to solve the problem is given -Only one correct answer Ill-defined problems: -Desired goal unclear -Information needed to solve problem is missing -Several possible solutions exist Women did better on well-defined SAT problems and men did better on ill-defined Most middle schoolers have well-defined math problems

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Process of Problem Solving

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-Recognize the initial state -Understand the goal -Identify the operators (strategies for reducing distance between initial and goal states) (in farmer problem, operator was the boat) -Recognize constraints on an action (example is farmer problem, he had constraints)

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Defining Goals, Representing the Problem

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-Focusing attention -Understanding the words -Understanding the whole problem -Translation and schema training -Results of problem representation

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Possible Solution Strategies

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Algorithms (guarantee success) Heuristics (shortcuts, but errorr is possible): -Means-ends analysis -Working backwards -Analogical thinking

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Algorithm

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Specific sequence of steps that guarantees a correct solution

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Heuristic

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General strategy that facilitates problem solving -Identify subgoals -Draw analogy

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IDEAL-General Strategy

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I-Identify problems and opportunities D-Defining goals and representing the problem E-Exploring possible solution strategies A-Anticipating, acting L-Looking back (were you correct)

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Facilitating Effective Problem Encoding

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-Present problems in a concrete form -Encourage students to make problems concrete for themselves -Highlight aspects of problems that students can solve, and when those elements appear again in a different problem, and point out that the same information can be applied or the same approach to a problem can be used

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Facilitating Effective Problem Encoding (2)

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-Give problems that look different on the surface yet require the same or similar problem solving procedures -Mix the kinds of problems that students tackle in any single practice session -Have students work in cooperative groups to indentify several ways of representing a single problem

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Recommendations for Teaching Algorithms

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-Describe and demonstrate specific procedures and situations (like a math problem) -Provide worked out examples and ask students to explain -Help students understand why particular algorithms are relevant and effective -Look closely at incorrect answers (give information about what student hasn't understood)

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Recommendations for Teaching Both Algorithms and Heuristics

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-Teach problem solving strategies within the context of specific subject areas -Have students tackle problems within the context of authentic activities -Model effective strategies and guide students' initial efforts -Provide scaffolding for difficult problems -Have students work with each other -Use technology effectively

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Factors Affecting Problem Solving

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-Working memory capacity must be sufficient (like a math problem with many steps) -Metacognitive processes may be necessary for planning and monitoring progress

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Obstacles to Problem Solving

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Cognitive Rigidity: Lack of flexibility in thinking -Functional fixednedness: Being able to consider only the typical function of an object -Response set: Tendency to respond to different problems in the same way High anxiety High fear of failure

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Expert Problem Solving

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-Experts recognize patterns -Have a large knowledge base -Have a large repetoire of strategies -Knowledge is elaborated, practiced, and organized -Experts plan extensively and monitor performance

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Guidelines for Promoting Problem Solving

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-Encourage different representation -Consider many solution strategies -Teach heuristics -Provide practice -Reduce contingencies associated with "correct" answers

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Role of Domain Specific Knowledge

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-Need more than general heuristics -Domain specific knowledge is linked to --How to represent a problem --How to search a problem -Metacognition guides the use of strategies for problem solving Like the King Lear play, if you know the concept, you can solve unexpected problems

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Types of Intelligence

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-Fluid intelligence: ability to solve novel problems -Crystallized intelligence: the breadth and depth of a person's knowledge

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Solving Novel Problems

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-Depends on the ability to maintain relevant representations in working memory -Ability to suppress distractions

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Creativity

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Historical Creativity: -Acts of genious that are widely regarded as meritorious within the context of cultural history. (Davinci, Michael Angelo) Everyone engages in creative processes Creative product must have three features: -Be novel or unique -Be useful in some context -Have demanded some special ability

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Stages of Creativity

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-Preparation (domain content knowledge) -Incubation (letting it settle) -Illumination (get insight to problem) -Verification (is what I produced good?)

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Creativity Blocks

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-Unnecessary constraints can block creative thought -Necessary to discard unnecessary assumptions in order to gain insight -Fixation -Functional fixedness

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Characteristics of historically creative people

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Produced mass volumes of work Darwinian in Nature -Ideas are combined to yield a large number of variations -Most ideas winnowed out as uninteresting, a process called variation selection

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Creativity, two components

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-New original behavior -Productive result Involves divergent thinking

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Fostering Creativity

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-Show students that creativity is valued -Promote internal rewards -Promote mastery of a subject area -Ask thought provoking questions -Teach and encourage cognitive and metacognitive strategies that support creative thinking -Give students freedom, security to take risks -Provide necessary time and resources A comfortable classroom promotes creativity Don't be stringent with requirements

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Critical Thinking

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Evaluating the accuracy, credibility, worth of information and lines of reasoning -Verbal reasoning -Argument analysis -Probabilistic reasoning -Hypothesis testing

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Fostering Critical Thinking

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-Teach fewer topics at a greater depth -Encourage intellectual skepticism -Model critical thinking -Provide opportunities to practice -Ask questions -Debate controversial issues -Help students understand that critical thinking involves considerable mental effort but it's worth it -embed critical thinking skills in authentic activities

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Reasoning and Argumentation

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The process of taking a position, providing reasons for the position, and presenting counterarguments

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Benefits of Argumentation

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-Understanding content -Increasing interest and motivation -Improving problem solving skills -Increasing Argumentation skills

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Teaching Argumentation

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-Teachers can promote higher quality discourse by asking students questions that vary in complexity -Successful discourse is coordinated among group members, with participants working together to construct knowledge rather than generating simple lists and arguments

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Structured Controversy

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-Form groups of four -Divide into pairs. One takes position one, the other position two -Learn information supporting your argument -Plan to teach others your position -Meet with another pair who have the same position as you -Ensure both pairs are ready to advocate for their position -Go back to original group -Each pair should argue for their position and group should come to an agreement on the issue -Reverse positions -Come to summary conclusion

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Diverse Populations

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Respect culture -Multicultural background enhances critical thinking skills Accommodate students with special needs -Look at chart in book

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Chapter 10

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Social Cognitive Views of Learning

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Social Cognitive Theory

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Learning occurs as a result of social interaction -Rooted in behaviorism -Adds cognitive processes (Reasoning, motivation)

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Reciprocal Causation

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The relationship between the person, environment, and behavior All elements are reciprocal

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Basic Assumptions of Social Cognitive Theory

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-People learn by observing others -Learning is an internal process that may or may not lead to behavior change -Cognitive process influence motivation and learning -People and their environments mutually influence each other -Behavior becomes increasingly self regulated, especially as they reach late childhood

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Reinforcement and Punishment

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Consequences influence behavior only if learners are aware of the response-consequence contingency -Reinforcement (increase in behavior) and punishment (decrease in behavior) occur only if the learners connect the consequences to specific things they've done If students have inconsistent patterns, they won't see the relationship between behavior and consequences

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Reinforcement and Punishment (2)

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Learners form outcome expectations (what they think will happen) and then behave in ways they think will maximize desires results -Expectations about the likely consequences of future actions -Not always based on past data -Can be influenced by what happens to other people --Vicarious reinforcement or punishment (seeing someone else being reinforced or punished, then they may imitate the behavior based on how it worked out for the other person)

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Reinforcement and Punishment (3)

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-Expectations about future consequences affect how thoroughly and in what ways the learners cognitively process new information. -The nonoccurrence of an of an expected consequence may be reinforcing or punishing --Nonoccurrence of reinforcement may be considered a punishment --Nonoccurrence of punishment may be considered a reinforcer

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Modeling

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How we learn from others

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Modeling (2)

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"What a model does"-demonstrates behavior -The observer then imitates the behavior This seems to have a neurological basis -Mirror neurons

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Possible Models

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Live models -Real people we observe doing something Symbolic models -Real or fictional characters portrayed in books, films, etc. Verbal Instruction -Descriptions of how to successfully execute certain behaviors

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Behaviors and Skills Learned Through Modeling

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Academic skills -Reading, math --Cognitive modeling (how to think about a task, a math teacher might narrate task as they solve problem) Aggression Productive interpersonal behavior -Generosity, benevolence

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Processes in Modeling

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-Attention (if you don't see it, you won't take in the information) -Retention (you need to retain the information) -Motivation (you need to be motivated to do it) -Production (you actually need to produce the behavior)

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Modeling Example

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The baby watched the Justin Bieber video and then imitated his behavior.

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Characteristics of Effective Models

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-Competence -Prestige and power -Behavior relevant to the learner's own situationq

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Conditions for Successful Modeling

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Attention -Must pay attention to the model Retention -Must remember what the model does Motor Reproduction -Must be physically capable of reproducing modeled behavior Motivation -Must be motivated to demonstrate modeled behavior

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Promoting Learning Through Modeling

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-Capture students' attention -Describe what you are doing -Provide descriptive labels that students can repeat to themselves -Have students perform the desired behavior immediately after you model it --Give them guidance and feedback to help them improve their own performance -Show students how the skills you model can help them in their own lives

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Promoting Learning Through Modeling (2)

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-Invite respected professionals to the classroom to demonstrate skills (policemen/woman, fireman/woman) -Show videos of skilled individuals -Have students read about or observe positive role models -Introduce models who have successfully crossed traditional gender boundaries -Include competent children as well as adults in the role models you present (might have a student demonstrate a particular skill)

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Self-Efficacy

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-Person's self-constructed judgment about his or her ability to execute certain behaviors or reach certain goals -Has effect on --Choice of activities --Goals --Effort and persistence --Learning and achievement -Some overconfidence is beneficial? This includes questions like, do you feel you can do it? Higher self-efficacy leads to better academic achievement

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Factors Influencing Development

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-Previous successes and failures -Current emotional states -Messages from others -Successes and failures of others (especially those similar to us) -Successes and failures as part of a group (collective self-efficacy) Careful about messages you send to students, you don't want to erode their self-efficacy

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Fostering Productive Levels of Self-Efficacy

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-Teach basic knowledge and skills to mastery (to automaticity, for learning multiplication facts as example) -Assure students that they can be successful at challenging tasks, and point out that others like them have been successful -Have students see peers with similar ability successfully accomplishing challenging tasks -Help students track their progress (good classroom management)

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Fostering Productive Self-Efficacy Levels (2)

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-Present some tasks at which students can succeed with some effort and perserverence (optimally challenging, not too hard, but a good challenge) -Have students tackle challenging tasks in small, cooperative groups -Have students set short-term (proximal) goals -If students are unrealistically overconfident, help them learn to evaluate their current knowledge and skills levels (students with learning disabilities tend to overestimate skills and abilities

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Teacher Self-Efficacy

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Teachers with high self-efficacy -Are more willing to experiment with new strategies -Have higher expectations for their students and set higher goals -Put more effort into teaching, are more persistent in helping students learn -Manage behaviors more effectively (don't refer students to special services as a first resort) This area is a particular challenge for new teachers,but it gets better with experience

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Teaching Efficacy

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Reality Shock: Beginning teachers feel considerable anxiety and doubt about their ability to cope with the teaching situation Teaching efficacy: A teacher's judgment of or confidence in, his or her capacity to cope with the teaching situation in ways that bring about desired outcomes

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Assessing Teacher Efficacy

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Factor 1: Efficacy for classroom management Factor 2: Efficacy for student engagement/motivation Factor 3: Efficacy for instructional strategies

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Questionnaire for Teacher Self-Efficacy

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Sample Items: 1)How much can you do to control disruptive behaviors in the classroom? 2)How much can you do to get students to follow classroom rules? 3)How much can you do to calm a disruptive/noisy student?..... High self-efficacy: I can manage Low self-efficacy: Believe they can't manage the class, say things such as it's a problematic class

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Teaching Efficacy and Learners with Special Needs

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-Teachers with a high sense of teaching efficacy are less likely to refer students for evaluation than are teachers with a low sense of self efficacy --Referall: educator's shorthand for the recommendation that a child be evaluated for possible special education classification

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Self-Regulation

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Ways in which we monitor and evaluate our cognitive processes and behaviors --Standards and goals we set for ourselves Consequences we impose on ourselves for successes and failures

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Self-Regulated Behavior

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1)Before Response: -Self determined standards and goals 2)During Response: -Emotional regulation -Self instructions -Self monitoring 3)After response -Self evaluation -Self imposed contingencies

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Self-Regulated Learning

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-Goal setting -Planning -Self motivation -Attention control -Flexible use of learning strategies -Self monitoring -Appropriate help seeking -Self evaluation Example is taking buses at Rutgers, you need to make sure you take the right one at the right time

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Promoting Self-Regulated Learning

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-Encourage students to set goals and to monitor their own progress toward those goals (suggest a planner) -Give students opportunities to work without direction and assistance -Assign activities in which students have considerable leeway regarding goals and use of time (zoo assignment, give them enough time to research) -Teach time management strategies -Provide scaffolding

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Promoting Self-Regulated Learning (2)

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-Model self-regulating cognitive processes and give students constructive feedback -Encourage students to seek short term focused help -Ask students to evaluate their own performance and compare self-assessment to teacher assessment

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Self-Regulated Problem Solving

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Directing one's own efforts when tacking complex problems -Offer structure with scaffolding (training) -Provide training in peer mediation

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Diversity in Self-Regulation

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Brain maturation and temperament -Effortful control Cultural expectations -Emotional restraint -Self discipline Be attentive to students at risk and to those with special needs -Individualize scaffolding -Teach specific strategies

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Self-Concepts

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A multidimensional view of what you are like

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Comparing the Three General Perspectives of Learning

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Be able to compare two out of three perspectives for the quiz

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Cognitive Psychology

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Learning Is: An internal mental phenomenon possibily relfected in behavior The focus of investigation is: Cognitive processes Principle of Learning Describe How: People mentally process information, and construct knowledge from experiences Consequences of Behavior: Not really a major focus Learning and Behavior are Controlled' Through cognitive process within the individual Education implications to focus on: Constructing knowledge and effectively processing information

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Behaviorism

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Learning is: A behavior change Focus of investigation is: Stimuli and responses that can be observed Principle of learning describe how: Behaviors are affected by environmental stimuli Consequences of Behavior: Must be directly experienced Learning and Behavior controlled: Primarily by environmental circumstances Educational Implications: Acquire more productive classroom behaviors

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Social Cognitive Theory

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Learning is: An internal mental phenomenon, possibly reflected in behavior The focus of investigation is: Both behavior and cognitive processes Principles of Learning Describe how: Observations of others affect behavior and cognitive processes Consequences of behavior: Are direct or vicarious Learning Behavior Controlled by: In part environment and in part cognitive Educational Implications: Learn by observing other and acquire effective self-regulation skills

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Chapter 8

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Learning and Cognition in Context

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Contextual Theories

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Theoretical frameworks focused on how people's general physical, social, and or cultural surroundings support their learning, development, and behavior

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Basic Assumptions of Contextual Theories

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-The brain functions in close collaboration with the rest of the body (embodied cognition) -Acquired knowledge/skills are often tied to specific activities/environments (situated learning/cognition), like children in Brazil can perform calculations by selling things but struggle in class -Learners Often think and perform more effectively when they can offset the cognitive load (distributed cognition/intelligence), like using a calculator -Learners sometimes learn more effectively when they collaborate with others to co-construct meaning (social constructivism) -With the help and guidance of more knowledgeable individuals, learners benefit from the accumulated wisdom from their cultural group (sociocultural theory)

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Complex Cognition and Social Constructivism

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Dialectical relationship: Participants have mutual influence on one another or in which the actor changes the environment in some way, and that changed environment subsequently changes the actor Authentic Tasks: Tasks that are connected to the real world

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Interactions with More Advanced Individuals

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Offer mediated learning experiences -Help learners relate what they're observing to (what's this an example of?) particular concepts, principles, or theories Teach cognitive and metacognitive strategies (like the term paper example)

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Interactions with Peers

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When peers share, they experience: -Clarification/organization of thoughts -Opportunities to elaborate on what was learned -Exposure to the views of others -Inconsistencies in thinking -Modeling effective ways of thinking/studying -Practice in learning, reasoning, argumentation, and social skills -More advanced epistemic beliefs

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Structured Controversy

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-Pair up with someone who has the same position as you (PRO OR CON) -Learn the information supporting your position -Plan how to teach others your position -Meet with another pair who have the same position as you -Ensure both pairs are ready to advocate for their position -Now find a pair that has the opposite position as you (2 pro, 2 con) -Each pair should argue for their position and the group should come to an agreement on the issue -Reverse positions -Come to a summary conclusion

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Community of Learners

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-All students actively participate (like watermelon and fraction problem) -Goal is to acquire a body of knowledge (all students contribute) -Many resources consulted/collected (research on zoos) -Discussion/collaboration common -Diversity in students expected and repected -Students and teachers coordinate efforts (teachers provide guidance, students contribute direction) -Students have a mechanism for sharing (like Google Docs) -Critique of work common -Process as important as product

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Culture

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-Behaviors and beliefs that are passed from old members of a group to new ones, from generation to generation -Facilitates survival and progress -Aspects of culture concrete or abstract

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Gender as Context

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Parts of culture are different for girls than boys

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Schemas and Scripts

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Schema: organized set of facts about a specific topic (proposition in a semantic network), example is a schema for Rutgers. It's big, has a football team, large classes, etc. Script: schema involving predictable sequence of event related to common activity -Developed through experience within a cultural context

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Worldviews

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General sets of beliefs and assumptions about reality -Influence the way people make meaning from the environment -Culturally transmitted -Often encompass implicit knowledge -May conflict with academic subject matter

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Intelligence and Culture

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What is viewed as intelligent in aboriginal culture is different from western culture

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Communities of Practice

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Groups of people, both professional and other, who share common interests and goals and regularly interact and coordinate their efforts in pursuit of those interests and goals (like surgeons) -Adhere to certain standards for action and interaction -Transmit knowledge about the acceptable ways to behave --Novices introduced via legitimate peripheral participation (observer)

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Society

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-A very large, enduring social group that has fairly explicity social and economic structures as well as collective institutions and activities -Influences members' learning through the resources it provides, the activities it supports, and the general message it communicates --Distributed knowledge as a resource

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Authentic Activities

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Similar or identical to activities students will encounter in outside world -Promote meaningful learning and complex thinking -With more resources, students can accomplish more -Facilitate transfer to other situations Examples -Problem or project based learning -Service learning

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Technological (Digital) Innovations

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-Allows access to distributed knowledge -Integrates media and pedagogical strategies --Smartboards, digital texts -Allows instruction to be delivered anywhere --Distance learning -Allows instruction to be individualized --Intelligent tutoring systems

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Technological (Digital) Innovations (2)

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-Allows learners to manipulate data while also keeping cognitive load within reasonable limits -Make diverse bodies of knowledge easily accessible -Facilitates communication and collaboration -Provide opportunities for authentic activties -Are motivating --Blurs lines between work and play

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Content Domains as Context

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-Different content domain require different thinking skills --But all are constructive and require prior knowledge, metacognition, and collaboration -Different content domains depend more or less heavily on different parts of the brain

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Skilled Reading

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-Sound and letter recognition (phonological awareness, the ability to associate sounds) -Word decoding skills -Automatic word recognition -Meaning construction -Metacognitive oversight (to recognize when you're no longer comprehending text)

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Reciprocal Teaching

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Four steps, encourages students to search for meaning in text 1)Predict 2)Clarify 3)Question 4)Summarize

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Skilled Writing

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-Goal setting -Identification and organization of relevant knowledge -Focus on communication rather than mechanics --Knowledge transforming rather than knowledge telling (recognize your audience) -Revision (difficult, need metacognitive activities) -Metacognitive regulation of effort

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Promoting Reading Development

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-Provide multimedia books -Remind students of what they already know -Have students retell or summarize what they've read -Have students ask one another teacher-like questions -Provide outlines or graphics to help organize what they're reading (model note-taking) -Explicitly teach strategies for comparing, contrasting, and evaluating texts

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Promoting Writing Development

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-Ask students with limited writing skills to dictate their stories -Ask students to set specific goals and help them organize their thoughts before starting writing (knowledge maps, mind maps) -Help students brainstorm ideas for communicating effectively -Provide explicit structure for students to follow as they write Writing development is harder because most children prefer to read. This is because writing requires motor skills in addition to mental effort.

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Promoting Writing Development (2)

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-Suggest that children focus first on communicating clearly, then turn attention to mechanics for later drafts -Provide specific questions to consider as students critique their writing -Encourage the use of programs and software that can support effective writing -Have students work in small groups to either critique one another's work or co-write essays and stories

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Technological Literacy

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Knowledge and skills needed beyond traditional reading and writing skills -Use of common computer functions -Use of device specific operating systems -Use of specific computer applications -Effective search for relevant and credible internet websites

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Scaffolding Online Research

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-Restrict websites students can access -Provide specific questions for students to answer as they read -Provide questions to consider when evaluating the credibility of content -Give students structured practice in comparing and contrasting websites -Ask students to write summaries of what they've learned from multiple websites

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Essential Knowledge and Skills

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-Understanding numbers and counting -Understanding central concepts and principles -Mastering problem solving procedures -Encoding problems appropriately -Metacognitive oversight and regulation of problem solving

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Misconceptions About Mathematics

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-Mathematics is a collection of meaningless procedures to memorize and recall as needed (sometimes math is taught this way) -Math problems always have a right and wrong answer -There's only one correct way to solve any particular math problem -Mathematical ability is largely a genetically endowed gift (everyone can learn math) Teachers are often mathphobic, they should try to gain confidence in this skill before teaching

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Example of Mathematics

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Video in which children learned addition through dots -Conversational -All students participate/are engaged -Good classroom management

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Promoting Learning in Mathematics

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-Encourage students to use strategies they've constructed on their own, but foster gradual automaticity -Have students apply fundamental concepts and procedures in in working with concrete objects and computer simulations -Use a number line to help students understand how numbers relate to one another -Play games that require knowledge of numbers -Combine problems that require different strategies into one practice set -Present problems that have relevant and irrelevant information (to promote critical thinking)

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Promoting Learning in Mathematics (2)

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-Have students work together to solve complex real-world problems with multiple possible answers -Encourage students to use calculators and computers to assist them in solving problems, after they've mastered the basic procedures -Present worked out solutions to illustrate multistep problem-solving procedures -Teach/scaffold metacognitive processes -Have students tutor classmates or younger children in math

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Scientific Reasoning

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-Hypothesis formation and testing -Careful, objective document of observations -Construction of theories or models -Metacognitive reflection -Advanced epistemic beliefs about the nature of scientific knowledge -Conceptual change when warranted

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Promoting Learning in Science

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-Ask students to explain current beliefs/theories --Look for elements of truth and unproductive misconceptions -Illustrate the relationships among concepts and principles with concrete stimuli -Present phenomena that are inconsistent with students' current understandings -Have students carry out experiments --Real world objects if needed --Computer simulated environments when available

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Promoting Learning in Science (2)

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-Scaffold students' efforts to separate and control variables and to draw appropriate conclusions -Engage students in small groups or whole class discussions in which they propose and try to justify various explanations for empirical findings -Explicitly draw students' attention to results that contradict their predictions and expectations and ask students to make sense of those results

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Historical Knowledge and Thinking

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Solid mastery of history requires: -Comprehending the nature of historical time -Perspective taking -Drawing inferences from historical documents -Identifying possible cause-and-effect relationships among events -Evaluating the credibility of various documents and interpretations (history is usually written by winners of battles, you need to reason about missing info)

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Promoting Learning In History

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-Focus on elementary students' personal histories on recent and local events -Introduce upper elementary students to primary sources -Have middle/secondary students read multiple accounts of event and then draw conclusions about what definitely happened and what might have happened -Have students act as journalists and participants and conduct interviews about a historical event

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Promoting Learning in History (2)

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-Role play family discussions and decision making during critical times -Have students write fictional diaries or journal entries from the perspective of a particular time period or historical figure -Ask students to consider how things might have been different if certain events had not taken place

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Example of History Learning

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-North and South in Civil War, have to compare the perspectives

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Geographical Knowledge and Thinking

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Key elements: -Understanding maps as symbolic representations -Identifying interrelationships among people and their environments -Acknowledge cultural differences and their implications for human behavior patterns

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Promoting Geographical Learning

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-Have students create maps of their environments -Provide explicit instruction in common map symbols -Introduce middle school students to the concept of scale in maps -Emphasize complex, dynamic, interrelationships among the earth's physical features and human activity -Teach students how to use age appropriate mapping websites and software

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Promoting Learning in Social Studies in General

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-Focus on key principles (big ideas) that underlies social studies (adaptation, interdependence, globalization) -Relate concepts and principles to students' everyday experiences -Avoid characterizing individuals/groups as simplistic figures and combat stereotypes -Assign works of fiction that realistically depict people living in particular times and places -Engage students in authentic activities

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Cultural and Gender Differences

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-Students have different early experiences (can capitalize on this) -Native language may affect literacy skills (can be a disadvantage) -Science and math may be socialized as "male" domains -Females and many non-western cultures are underrrepresented in history texts

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Accommodating Special Needs

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-Recognize that many students with special needs have difficulties with reading and wrting --Address reading and writing deficits early, with deliberate and intensive training -Chronic difficulties with literacy can affect self esteem and motivation --Help students find joy in literacy activities, ideally with authentic reading and writing activities (use a motivating tool)

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Interdependence

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Condition in which group members' goal accomplishments are linked together

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Goal Structure

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The manner in which students relate to others who are also working towards a particular goal

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Negative Interdependence

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A condition that exists when, in order for a person to succeed in accomplishing their goals, others must fail (competition)

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Positive Interdependence

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A condition that exists when the success of each individual depends on all group members being successful (cooperation)

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Achievement Gains of Cooperative Learning

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-More successful than individual learning -More successful than competing among peers -Individualistc learning and competitive learning produce similar results

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Additional Gains of Cooperative Learning

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-Develop more positive relationships with peers -Exhibit greater social competence -Retain information longer -Show higher levels of reasoning, critical thinking, and metacognition -Exhibit more positive attitudes towards a subject matter Both cognitive, social, affect, and metacognitive advantages to cooperative learning

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Social Motivation Perspective

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Relies on the use of group rewards or recognition for group productivity -Teams, games, tournaments -Team accelerated instruction -Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition -Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD) -Teacher takes the role of a director (giving instructions) -A problem is that students may not be interdependent -A solution would be to use attractive awards -Motivation is the mechanism for learning

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STAD Pros and Cons

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Benefits: Individual accountability (each student is responsible for improving his or her performance) Tasks require practice and rehearsal Cons: No higher level cognitive functions

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STAD Steps

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1)Students are grouped into four to six member heterogenous groups 2)During the lesson teacher presents the information to be learned, using various instructional strategies (videos, lecture) 3)After students have been exposed to the information, they work together to learn it. The teacher gives the students a worksheet that reviews the lecture material. Students share the information to help each other. They quiz each other and check answers on the back of the sheet. 4)After the lesson, the teacher gives students an individual test. The tests are scored based on each student's improvement from a prior test performance. Teams with the highest improvement scores earn a reward of their choice.

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Social-Cohesion Perspective

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-Relies on the principles of interdependence -Students are motivated to help each other succeed because they care about each other -Engage students in team building and social skill development (model appropriate, prosocial behavior) -Assign open-ended tasks -No incentives necessary -Groups are 4-6 people -Heterogeneous groups -Tasks are complex -Teacher is a facilitator (scaffolder) -Students may fail to buy into interdependence -Can avert above problem by social skill development -Care is the mechanism for learning

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Basic Elements of Cooperative Learning

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-Positive interdependence (in it together) -Face to face promotive interaction (easier) -Individual accountability and personal responsbility -Interpersonal and small group skills -Group processing (what did we do well, what could we have done better?)

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Cognitive Elaboration Perspective

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Schemas: basic cognitive structure for organizing information Scripted Cooperation: Learning strategy in which students take turns summarizing materials and criticizing the summaries -Incentives not necessary -Groups size is 2 -Groups could be either heterogeneous or homogeneous -Tasks rehearsal in nature -Teach is a director, gives instructions -No potential problems -Avert problems by ensuring turn taking -Mechanism for learning is depth processing

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Piaget, Constructivist Perspective

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Assimilation: Incorporation process in which an outside event is brought into one's way of thinking Accommodation: Modification process in which low level schemas are transformed into high level schemas Cognitive Disequilibrium: Cognitive conflict Conceptual Change Teaching: Helps students understand concepts by challenging them to examine their ideas and identify shortcomings in them Cognitive Conflict: New information doesn't agree with existing knowledge -No incentives -Group size is four -Homogenous groups to reduce dominance -Tasks complex in nature -Teacher is a facilitator, can scaffold -Issue is dominance of a peer -Mechanism for promoting learning is cognitive disequilibrium

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Vygotsky, Dialectical Constructivism

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Dialectical Constructivism: Theory that considers knowledge lies in the continual interaction between the individual and the environment (including other people) Zone of Proximal Development: Level of competence on a task in which the student cannot yet master the task on their own but can accomplish that same task with appropriate guidance from a more capable partner Scaffolding: Guidance, support, and tutelage provided by a teacher during social interaction designed to advance the students' current level of skill and understanding -Incentives not needed -Two in a group (dyad) -Heterogeneous groups -Skill based activities -Teacher is a direction (gives instructions) -Potential problem is the inability of skilled individual to give help -To avert proble, teacher can train in help giving -Scaffolding in ZPD mechanism for promoting learning

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Learning in Heterogeneous Groups

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Structural approaches -Thin, pair, share Jigsaw Jigsaw II Group Investigation Structure Controversy

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Think, Pair, Share

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Structural because it fits a wide variety of tasks. Students are grouped into pairs before a lesson and sit side by side. Teacher presents information through lecture, demonstration, or hands on activity. After 15 minutes, teacher puts a reflective question on the board and students have to reflect on the previously presented material. They pair together to discuss the material and then share with the class.

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Jigsaw

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Students are divided into four person hetergenous groups and assigned topics on which they have to be experts. Students with the same expert topic meet to discuss their topic. Expert group consists of members of different teams. Task is to learn as am much as possible. They return to their groups and teach material to other members of the same group. Each student teaches the groups about their subtopic and then students take individual quizzes for individual grades. All students have different reading materials.

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Jigsaw II

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Each student has the same material. Students are assigned to expert groups and given a sheet to guide study. Students assigned the same expert topic meet in groups to discuss and use the expert sheet. Each student returns to their team and teaches the topic to their members. Teacher provides outlines to guide discussion. Expert presents to the rest of the group. Students take individual quizzes and teams are rewarded based on team's performance.

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Group Investigation

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Six stages. Students are grouped into heterogeneous groups. Objectives are interaction, investigation, and interpretation. Stage I: Teacher chooses a general topic to fit curriculum goals, then this is divided into subtopics. Students organize into research groups with each focusing on a different subtopic. Stage II: Students plan their research and decide how they will gather info. Might have a set of questions. Stage III: Students carry out research with participation of all students Stage IV: Students share the information they gathered an plan a presentation to class. Each group chooses a representative who will work with other representatives to plan an overall strategy for the presentation. Stage V: Students make their presentation Stage VI: Teacher and students evaluate presentations.

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Structured Controversy

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Think back to ability grouping experience

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Influences on Effectiveness in Heterogeneous Groups

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-Gender (still an issue, woman scientist example) -Race, ethnicity, language (basis of exclusion for others, ELL for example) -Special needs (marginalization) -Status characteristics (greatest determiner is academic achievement, higher achievers dominate more while lower one hang back) --Characteristics of individuals that may signal they have a high or low status --Stereotype threat: concern about being viewed from the vantage point of a negative stereotype or acting to conform to such as stereotype (saying girls are better at language than boys, boy might be afraid of not doing well in class because it will validate stereotype)

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Status in the Classroom

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Status Differences: Differences in status among individuals that influence participation in activities Diffuse Status Characteristics: Characteristics that have no direct bearing on task performance but are assumed to be indicators of greater or lesser capability to perform task (gender influence on language learning ability)

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Status Video

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-Status differences have effects on group work at all grade levels -Lack of participation usually perceived as a behavior problem, but it's usually because group members don't include the student Two Steps to Minimize this: 1)Remind students they each have unique abilities (talking, imagination, visualization, etc.) Emphasize project can't be complete without everyone and that not everyone is good at everything 2)Assign evaluations for students -Be honest -Must be done publicly -Don't over exaggerate praise -Other group members likely to accept validity

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Tutoring

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Instructional experience in which one student typically teacher another less skilled student (Vygotskian) Required minimal movement

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Classroom Management

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Teacher behaviors and management technique that results in a healthy learning environment generally free of behavior problems

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Processes Involved in Tutoring

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-Tutor asks a question or presents a problem for the student to solve -Student answers the question -Tutor gives feedback on the answer -Tutor and student collaborate to improve quality of the answers -Tutor assesess student understanding of the answers One of the most effective forms of learning

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Tutoring Diverse Learners

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Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) Positive Practice: practicing the correct answer after making a mistake Reciprocal Peer Tutoring: Combines many elements of both social motivational and social cohesion perspectives on peer learning

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Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT)

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Elements of both cooperation and competition. Influenced by social motivational perspective. Involves the whole class in learning. Students are randomly paired or matched by ability or language proficiency. All pairs of students assigned to one of two competing teams. One person is a tutor for 10 minutes, then partners switch roles. If tutee answers correctly, they get two points. Tutor checks on answer sheet. If the answer is incorrect, tutor does positive practice correction. If still incorrect, no points awarded. Points of each pair is totaled in for overall team.

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Reciprocal Peer Tutoring

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Students receive training beforehand. First introduced to concepts of teamwork, partnership, and cooperation for sense of social-cohesion. RPT done in 2-3 45 minute sessions. Students assigned pairs and work on computational problems for first 20 minutes of a session, where they both play role and teacher and student. Tutor given set of mathematic concepts for which tutee needs help in (determined through curriculum based assessments). Each flashcard has problem on one side and solution on the other. The pair is given worksheet to keep track of progress. Tutee gets praise if they answer correctly, or do "Try 2" if they get something wrong. After first 20 minutes, two students complete drill sheets, check each other's papers, and add total of correct problems. Compare scores for team's goals and then decide if they succeeded. After specificied number of wins, dyad chooses a prize.

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Tutoring for Special Needs

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Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) -Tutor models and gradually fades a verbal rehearsal routine that sets forth a series of steps for solving the problem -Teacher provides step by step feedback to confirm and praise correct responses, provide explanations, and mode strategic behavior for incorrect answers -Frequent verbal and written interactions between tutors and tutees -Opportunities for tutees to apply explanations to subsequent problems -Include reciprocity for each session, in which both children serve in the roles of tutor and tutee for each session

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Collaboration and Technology

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Webquests: uses a central question based on a real-world issue and asks students to solve the problem or answer a question Online Mentoring: -One on one or groups with a single mentor -Learners interact safely with adult volunteers Knowledge Forum: computer supported intentional learning environment desgined for use by an entire class of students

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Learning from Peers: Practices for Learning

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-Importance of discourse quality -Role of teacher: --Preparer of learning activities --Community builder --Task developer --Model --Coordinator of activities --Evaluator Classroom tasks: classified as simple (better for individual) or more complex cognitive skills (better for group work)

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